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21.09.2008: Call for state banks: A new banking and trading system for the global finances is needed.
Prices and structure of the international food market are shocked by the financial crisis
The
collapse of Lehman Brothers and the near-bankcruptcy of global insurer
AIG, both dealing in complex financial transactions, hit agricultural
quotations.
The CME Group, the world's largest futures
exchange, experiencing a near-bankcruptcy reduced the number of its
AIG agricultural commodity positions responding to the Wall Street
crisis of September. The privately negotiated transactions executed
outside of the public auction market included soybeans, soybean oil,
corn and wheat.
The Food and Agriculture Organisation of the UN
criticises the increasing involvement of institutional investors buying
positions in food commodities as playing a role in pushing food prices
upwards in recent months. Other observers say that the breakdown in the
number of positions come from investors and commercial players.
Losses during the financial crisis 2008.
USA
buys bad papers in a volume of 700 billion Dollars, together with other
supporting activities the total volume exceeds 1.5 trillion Dollars, a
bad balance of the outgoing US government. America urges other states
to do the same. This means that American debts are paid with foreign
capital.
Germany supported two banks which were heavily engaged
in trade with bad papers of American banks. Around 1.5 trillion EUR
from German tax funds are lost.
The BaFin A regulating office closed
any trades of risky stocks of following enterprises in Germany: Aareal
Bank, Allianz SE, AMB Generali Holding, Commerzbank, Deutsche Bank,
Deutsche Börse , Deutsche Postbank, Hannover Rückversicherung, Hypo
Real Estate Holding, MLP, Münchener Rückversicherungsgesellschaft.
The Russian Stock Exchange remained closed for a whole week week to avoid total crash.
London's financial world was heavily affected.
Call for state banks to ensure normal business exchange and freeze all support of rotten banks
The
government should not support rotten banks and financial entities any
more. Each land should create a state bank under the ruling of the
finance Minister using the enormous quantity of money which othertwise
are pumped in a corrupt system.
Private banks and big
financial corporations which get in trouble with insane financial
constructions, should be left alone in its bankruptcy. The self
regulating market laws may thus take over and decisions could be made
based on a real risk management. To the wastepaper basket with the
corporations which do not act according to the free market. In case all
free banks bankrupting, the state bank may take over. The investor may
choose between the real risk or the safety of the state bank which
trades only with promising papers.
20.09.2008: Cargill enters the biodiesel business using 75 percent of its rape oil [1]
Cargill
and agri-food giant is known for commercialising soy bean in Brazil,
using Santarem in the middle of the Amazon Regions as shipping port. It
has now opened a huge new rapeseed plant in Montoir, near Saint
Nazaire, France, with a capacity to process 600,000 metric tones of
rapeseed per year.
The plant will produce 250,000 metric tones
of rapeseed oil per year and 350,000 metric tonnes of protein-rich
animal feed. Twenty-five per cent of the oil is be destined for food
use, and the vast majority of this will be used for French food
production. Diester Atlantique esther plant will process the oil to
fuel.
The company argues that there is plenty of rapeseed
available in France. No scarcity of oil for food is expected in the
French market.
[1] Cargill opens rapeseed crush plant in Montoir, western France. 18. September 2008
http://www.cargill.com/news/news_releases/080918_montoir_eng.htm#TopOfPage
19.09.2008:Starbucks Corp banned milk from their coffee shops in China [1]
Starbucks
Corp. serve only black coffee in its Chinese coffee shops after his
milk supplier, Mengniu, was found positive for melanine.
South Korean fish farms used melamine contaminated feed [2]
Meanwhile
South Korea reports melamine in 612 fish feed manufactured from squid
caught domestically and in China, most of it had been fed in fish farms
to wels catfish and 600 tons of were sold to restaurants and dealers.
[1] The Standard.com: Starbucks recalls Mengniu milk products. Associated Press 18.09.2008
http://www.thestandard.com/news/2008/09/18/starbucks-recalls-mengniu-milk-products
[2] Channel New Asia: South Korea detects harmful chemical in fish feed. 19.09.2008
http://www.channelnewsasia.com/stories/afp_asiapacific/view/377094/1/.html
19.09.2008: Arla closes milk production site in China reacting to the melamine scandal[1]
The
Danish based Arla Foods group recalled all milk products contaminated
with melamine from the Chinese market and closes the production site of
its joint venture partner Mengniu Dairy. Arla is the second western
corporation, after the New Zealander company Frontera which has been
found linked to the melamine milk scandal in China.
The desire
to expand its production to low cost and high profit markets increases
the risk to get entangled with the production of poisoned baby food
being worldwide exported. Food safety should be considered as top
priority and profit should not become the main aim of corporations
acting on international level. Frontera and Arla have to learn this
lesson if they want to stay in food business.
[1] Welt Online: Arla nimmt wegen Milchpulver-Skandal Produkte vom chinesischen Markt
http://newsticker.welt.de/index.php?channel=new&module=dpa&id=18959682
17.09.2008: Food
and beverage containers made of plastics with bisphenol-A increase risk
of cardiovascular disease, diabetes and liver anomalies [1]
Iain
A. Lang and colleagues 2008 examine associations between urinary
Bisphenol A (BPA) concentrations and adult health status using data
from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2003-2004.
It
is one of the world's highest production–volume chemicals, with more
than 2 million metric tons produced worldwide in 2003 epoxy resins
lining food and beverage containers and as a monomer in polycarbonate
plastics in many consumer products.
The authors found that
higher urinary concentrations of bisphenola A (BPA) were associated
with an increased prevalence of cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and
liver-enzyme abnormalities , such as elevated gamma-glutamyltransferase
and alkaline phosphatase. They stress that adverse effects of low-dose
BPA in animals have already been found in studies on animals, and call
for more studies on this subject.
The position of the chemical industry on BPA [2]
The
American Chemistry Council, an organisation of the chemical industry
and the Polycarbonate/BPA Global Group, write in its site
www.bisphenol-a.org that the US National Toxicology Program's (NTP)
final report on bisphenol-A found no direct evidence for health effects
in people.
However, the final conclusion of NTP report says that
there is some concern for neural and behavioural effects in fetuses,
infants, and children at current human exposures. The NTP also has some
concern for bisphenol A exposure in these populations based on effects
in the prostate gland, mammary gland, and an earlier age for puberty in
females. [3]
[1] Lang, Iain A.; Galloway, Tamara S.; Scarlett, Alan; Henley, William E.; Depledge, Michael; Wallace, Robert B.; Melzer, David: Association of urinary bisphenol a concentration with medical disorders and laboratory abnormalities in adults. JAMA 2008; DOI:10.1001/jama.300.11.1303.
http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/300/11/1303
[2] Bisphenol-A News: Final National Toxicology Program Report Provides Sound Scientific Support for Bisphenol A Safety Assessments. September 4, 2008
http://www.bisphenol-a.org/whatsNew/20080905.html
[3] National Toxicology Program: DRAFT NTP BRIEF ON BISPHENOL A [CAS NO. 80-05-7] Peer Review Date: June 11, 2008
http://cerhr.niehs.nih.gov/chemicals/bisphenol/BPADraftBriefVF_04_14_08.pdf
16.09.2008: Chinese infant formula tainted with melamine [1]
In China 700 tonnes of infant formula tainted with melamine made before August 6, 2008 are being recalled. They were tainted with melamine to simulate a high protein content. One baby already died and more than 400 babies have kidney stones or kidney failure. Melamine was found in Sanlu-brand milk sold in China and exported to Taiwan, Bangladesh, Burma, Burundi, Gabon and Yemen. The New Zealand corporation FRONTERA, a global milk powder exporter , has 43% of SANLU shares. Frontera knew of the tainted milk of its partner one month ahead of the scandal, but no action within the corporation was taken to make it public. [2]
Melamine is a toxic compound which is used in the production of plastics and adhesives. It was been found in imported Chinese pet food. Cats and dogs died or got sick after eating the contaminated pet food in 2007.
U.S. FDA says that some of this infant formula may have entered the US market through speciality markets that serve the Chinese community. The FDA advises not to feed infant formula manufactured in China to infants. The agency stresses that safe milk-based infant formulas are Abbott Nutrition, Bristol-Myers Squibb unit MeadJohnson Nutritionals, Nestle USA, PBM Nutritionals and Solus Products.
[1] FDA News: FDA Issues Health Information Advisory on Infant Formula. September 12, 2008
http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/NEWS/2008/NEW01883.html
[2] Blog.Sina.com: New Zealand accuses China of tainted milk cover-up. 16.09.2008
http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_50a9c6800100aoc5.html
15.09.2008: Swedish study recommends reduction of saturated fats in infancy [1]
Inger Öhlund and colleagues in a study of Swedish infants between 6 and 12 month old published in 2008 found that total fat intake complied with the Nordic recommendations, but polyunsaturated fatty acids of 5.6 % was to low and saturated fatty acids with 15,1% of total energy was too high. The authors found that high polyunsaturated fatty acids intake was associated with lower total serum cholesterol, lower low-density-lipoprotein cholesterol and apolipoprotein B in girls but not in boys.
The authors stress that higher polyunsaturated fatty acids and lower saturated fatty acids intakes may reduce total cholesterol and lower low-density-lipoprotein cholesterol LDL-C early in life.
The authors recommend to focus on fat quality rather than on quantity to lower serum lipid concentrations in early childhood.
[1] Öhlund, I.; Hörnell, A.; Lind, T.; Hernell, O.: Dietary fat in infancy should be more focused on quality than on quantity: European Journal of Clinical Nutrition (2008) 62, 1058–1064; doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602824.
http://www.nature.com/ejcn/journal/v62/n9/abs/1602824a.html
12.09.2008: Researcher from Iran says that nitrite may be replaced by annatto up to 60 per cent [1]
A controversy concerns nitrites in cured meats. Some say it increases the risk of stomach cancer, or lung diseases [2], while other researchers found no proof of such affirmations. Cardiologists found that nitric oxide from bacterial breakdown of nitrite reduces blood pressure and avoids damages during an heart attack. [3] [4]
Ribeiro and colleagues 2006 presents a summary of studies concerning anti-mutagenic and anti-carcinogenic potential of annatto, mushrooms and propolis in Brazilian natural diets. Their data shown a clear role for these compounds in preventing mutation and specific preneoplastic lesions. The authors stress that these agents may become a promising alternative for cancer prevention strategies. [5]
Petersson , 2008 suggests that nitrites may protect the stomach from ulcers. The author says that mouth bacteria reduce nitrate to nitrite. Nitrous oxide NO produced in the gastric lumen after nitrate ingestion increased gastric mucosal blood flow and the thickness of the firmly adherent mucus layer in the stomach. The blood flow and mucus layer are essential defence mechanisms that protect the mucosa from luminal acid and noxious agents. [6]
Researchers from Iran presented in 2008 a study claiming that annatto (Bixa orellana L.) powder may replace up to 60 per cent of nitrite as ingredient of sausage. This might reduce excessive consumption of nitrite. According to the authors colour, flavour, aroma, and microbial contamination did not differ significantly compared with samples with 100 percent nitrite. [1]
Annatto is not allowed in the European Union as ingredient of sausages and other meat products. Annex IV of the European directive 94/36/EC on colours for use in foodstuffs cites annatto in a positive list of colours permitted for certain uses only, meat products are allowed there. [7]
[1] Zarringhalami, S.; Sahari, M.A.; Hamidi-Esfehani, Z.: Partial replacement of nitrite by annatto as a colour additive in sausage. Meat Science. Published online ahead of print 8 August 2008.
[2] Jiang, Rui; Paik, David C.; Hankinson, John L.; Barr, R. Graham: Cured Meat Consumption, Lung Function, and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease among United States Adults. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 15 April 2007, Volume 175, Pages 798-804.
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa4085/is_20070415/ai_n19059628
[3] Webb, Andrew; Bond, Richard; Mc Lean, Peter; Uppal, Rakash, Benjamin Nigel; Ahluwalia, Amrita: Reduction of nitrite to nitric oxide during ischemia protects against myocardial ischemia-reperfusion damage. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. PNAS | September 14, 2004 | vol. 101 | no. 37 | 13683-13688
http://www.pnas.org/content/101/37/13683.abstract
[4] Bryan, Nathan.S.; Calvert, J.W.;. Elrod, J.W.; Gundewar, S.; Ji, S.Y.; Lefer, David.J.: Effects of dietary nitrite and nitrate on myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences Published on-line ahead of print, 12 November 2007.
http://www.pnas.org/contents-by-date.0.shtml
[5] Ribeiro, L.R.; Mantovani, M.S.; Ribeiro, D.A.; Salvadori D.M.: Brazilian natural dietary components (annatto, propolis and mushrooms) protecting against mutation and cancer.
Hum Exp Toxicol. 2006 May;25(5):267-72.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16758769
[6] Petersson, Joel: Nitrate, Nitrite and Nitric Oxide in Gastric Mucosal Defense. Doctoral thesis. Upsala University. 2008.
http://publications.uu.se/abstract.xsql?dbid=8624
[7] European Parliament and Council Directive 94/36/EC of 30 June 1994 on colours for use in foodstuffs.
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31994L0036:EN:HTML
08.09.2008: Stevioside and rebaudiana A (Rebiana) from Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni
Stevia is grown by small farmers in Paraguay and Brazil. Its culture is very difficult and does not suit global agriculture practices. That is why great agricorporations did not started extensive stevia plantations.
The dried leaves of Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni, contain the sweet-tasting stevioside 3-8%, rebaudioside A approximately 1%, D, and E, and dulcosides A about 0.27%. Rebaudioside D and E, together with dulcoside B are minor components counting for 0.03 to 0.04 % of the dried leaves.
Stevioside is a glycoside with a glucosyl and sophorosyl residue attached to the aglycon steviol.The structure of rebaudioside A is the same as that of stevioside except that the sophorosyl residue is replaced by a glucosyl-(1-3)-sophorosyl residue. Stevioside and rebaudioside A are therefore in focus of safety and stability studies.
Sweetening power: The sweetening powers of stevioside is 100, rebaudioside A 130, and the dulcosides 30 times that of sucrose.
The food industry is eager to introduce stevioside and rebaudioside A in its products because it is a natural, and overall a low priced sweetener.
Safety concerns about rebiana [1]
Kobylewskil and Eckhert 2008, in a study prepared for the CSPI, concluded that the FDA should ensure that the genetic toxicity studies that produced either positive or conflicting results be repeated. The authors added that studies that look at potential DNA adducts related to the potential reactive metabolites (C-13 carbonium ion or the epoxide) of steviol would be a strong addition to the genotoxicity data. Finally, the FDA should require carcinogenicity and toxicology studies in rats and in mice before accepting rebaudioside A as a GRAS substance or approving it as a food additive. The authors call for more genotoxicity tests, because of the evidence that derivatives of stevia that are closely related to rebiana damage DNA and chromosomes.
Coca-Cola and Pepsi are planning to introduce new drinks made with rebiana, an extract of stevia leaves that is 200 times sweeter than sugar. But according to the study of Kobylewskil and Eckhert, several, though not all, laboratory tests show that the sweetener causes mutations and DNA damage, which raises the prospect that it causes cancer. The CSPI asks the FDA for additional tests before accepting rebiana as Generally Regarded as Safe, or GRAS.
Stevia is legal in foods in Japan and several other countries, but the United States, Canada, and the European Union bar stevia in foods because of older tests that suggested it might interfere with reproduction. New tests sponsored by Cargill did not find such problems. [2]
Acute renal failure induced by steviol, breakdown product of stevioside [3]
Toskulkao and colleagues 1997 investigated the acute toxicity of stevioside and steviol (a product of enzymatic hydrolysis of stevioside). Stevioside and steviol at a dose as high as 15 g/kg BW was not lethal to mice and rats.
Hamsters did not die with Stevioside doses as high as 15 g/kg BW, however, their LD50 values of steviol were 5.20 and 6.10 g/kg BW for males and females, respectively. Severe degeneration of the proximal tubular cells of hamster kidneys, with acute renal failure induced by steviol were noted by the authors.
Stevioside and steviol are not mutagenic but toxic at high concentration [4]
Klongpanichpak and colleague 1997 found that stevioside and steviol showed no mutagenic effect on both tester Salmonella typhimurium TA 98 and TA 100 strains either in the presence or absence of metabolic activating system. The authors stress, however, that high concentration of stevioside and steviol showed some toxic which decreased in the presence of the metabolic activating system.
No genetic risc from stevioside and steviol [5]
According to Brusik 2008 the mutagenic activity of steviol and some of its derivatives, exhibited in strain TM677, related by some authors, was not reproduced in the same bacteria having normal DNA repair processes.-induced clastogenic effects at extremely high dose levels in vivo were found. The author concludes that neither stevioside nor steviol do not pose a risk of genetic damage following human consumption.
Stability of stevioside and rebaudioside A in carbonated acidic beverages [6]
Chang and Cook 1983, observing the stability of pure stevioside and rebaudioside A in carbonated phosphoric and citric acidified beverages during long-term storage, reported some degradation of both sweeteners after 2 months of storage at 37 °C, but no significant changes at room temperature or below following 5 months of storage of stevioside, or 3 months of storage of rebaudioside A. Exposure to 1 week of sunlight did not affect stevioside but resulted in approximately 20% loss of rebaudioside A. Heating at 60 "C for 6 days resulted in 0-6% loss of the sweeteners.
Degradation of stevioside and rebaudioside A is acid-promoted, not by sunlight [7]
Clos, DuBois and Prakash 2008, working for Coca-Cola Company and Cargill, performed stability tests with Rebiana, traded as Truvia , the common name of rebaudioside A. They reported no significant photodegradation in acidic beverages exposed to light, containing rebaudioside A or steviosid. Degradation of the sweeteners were acid-promoted.
The authors challenge the Chang and Cook 1983 article which had suggested that rebaudioside A is unstable to sunlight exposure, while the structurally homologous stevioside is stable, however found rebaudioside and stevioside light stable, and degradation of the sweeteners were acid-promoted.
The position of the European Union [8]
The European Commission in an opinion on Stevia Rebaudiana Bertoni plants and leaves from 1999, responding to a request for authorisation to market as a novel food for the plants and dried leaves of Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni concluded that there are no satisfactory data to support the safe use of these products as ingredients of food or as sucrose substitute for diabetics and obese individuals. No appropriate data were presented to enable the safety of the commercial plant product to be evaluated. Stevia was therefore banned in the EU.
[1] Kobylewski1, Sarah; Eckhert, Curtis D.: Toxicology of Rebaudioside A: A Review . University of California, Los Angeles.
http://cspinet.org/new/pdf/stevia-report_final-8-14-08.pdf
[2] CSPI: Lab Tests Point to Problems with Trendy New Stevia Sweetener. CSPI Urges More Testing Before Stevia Extract is Used in Food, Drinks
http://www.cspinet.org/new/200808281.html
[3] Toskulkao, C.; Chaturat, L.; Temcharoen, P.; Glinsukon, T.: Acute toxicity of stevioside, a natural sweetener, and its metabolite, steviol, in several animal species. Drug and chemical toxicology 1997, vol. 20, nr 1-2, pp. 31-44
http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=2715813
[4] Klongpanichpak S, Temcharoen P, Toskulkao C, Apibal S, Glinsukon T.: Lack of mutagenicity of stevioside and steviol in Salmonella typhimurium TA 98 and TA 100.
J Med Assoc Thai. 1997 Sep;80 Suppl 1:S121-8.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9347659
[5] Brusick D.J.: A critical review of the genetic toxicity of steviol and steviol glycosides.
Food Chem Toxicol. 2008 Jul;46 Suppl 7:S83-91. Epub 2008 May 16.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18556105
[6] Chang, Shin S.; Cook, Joanne M.: Stability studies of stevioside and rebaudioside A in carbonated beverages. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 1983; 31(2) Pages 409 - 412; Doi: 10.1021/jf00116a056
http://pubs.acs.org/cgi-bin/abstract.cgi/jafcau/1983/31/i02/f-pdf/f_jf00116a056.pdf
[7] Clos, J.F.; DuBois,G.E.; Prakash, I.: Photostability of Rebaudioside A and Stevioside in Beverages Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry Published online ahead of print, ASAP Article, doi: 10.1021/jf801343e
[8] European Commission: Scientific Committee on Food CS/NF/STEV/3 Final 17 June 1999: Opinion on Stevia Rebaudiana Bertoni plants and leaves .
http://www.food.gov.uk/multimedia/pdfs/stevioside.pdf
07.09.2008: Dietary fibres, resistant starch and phenolic compounds in pasta and backery
Banana flour increases undigestible carbohydrate content of pasta [1]
Maribel Ovando-Martinez and colleagues 2008 point out that unripe banana, with a high proportion of undigestible compounds, such as resistant starch and non-starch polysaccharides, might be used as flour to increase resistant starch and antioxidant phenolics contents of pasta (spaghetti) of high quality.
The resulting spaghetti had an increased indigestible fraction and antioxidant capacity, and low rate of carbohydrate enzymatic hydrolysis with low-glycaemic index,compared with traditional products.
According to the authors the high antioxidant properties of unripe banana is due to its condensed tannins or proanthocyanidins.
The authors stress that this would also create a new use for the excess of production and large quantities of bananas which are otherwise lost.
Apple fruit skin powder may add nutritional value of muffins [2]
Vasantha and colleagues 2008 used blanched, dehydrated, and ground apple fuit skin to improve the nutritional value of muffins. The apple skin powder used by the authors contained 41% total dietary fibre and high content of antioxidants.
The authors stressed that apple fruit skin, a by-product of apple processing, is a rich source of dietary fibre and phenolics such as quercetin glycosides, catechins, chlorogenic acid, phloridzin, and cyanidin galactoside. Using apple skin powder in bakery may turn apple skin from by-product to a valious nutritional enhancer.
[1] Ovando-Martinez, Maribel; Sáyago-Ayerdi, Sonia; Agama-Acevedo, Edith; Goni, Isabel; Bello-Pérez, Luis A. : Unripe banana flour as an ingredient to increase the undigestible carbohydrates of pasta. Food Chemistry. Doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.07.035
http://www.respyn.uanl.mx/especiales/2007/ee-12-2007/documentos/CNCA-2007-10.pdf
[2] Rupasinghe, H.P. Vasantha; Wang, Laixin; Huber, Gwendolyn M.; Pitts, Nancy L.: Effect of baking on dietary fibre and phenolics of muffins incorporated with apple skin powder. Food Chemistry. Volume 107, Issue 3, 1 April 2008, Pages 1217-1224. Pages 1217-1224. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.09.057
04.09.2008: How Salmonella attach to salad leaves [1]
According to Professor Gadi Frankel, Dr. Rob Shaw and colleagues, Salmonella and E. coli O157 – a strain of E. coli can spread to salads and vegetables if they are fertilised with contaminated manure, irrigated with contaminated water, or if they come into contact with contaminated products during cutting, washing, packing and preparation processes. Some Salmonella bacteria use the long stringy appendages (flagella) to attach themselves to salad leaves and other vegetables. The researchers found that Salmonella which were deprived of their flagella could not attach themselves to the leaves, and the salad remained uncontaminated.
Professor Frankel stresses that the flagella play a key role in Salmonella's ability to contaminate salad leaves. He says that different types of salad leaves are affected and focuses his work on how to use the plant protection strategy to increase food safety.
The authors fears that the number of infections will increase as people are eating more bagged salads, choosing organic produces ready to eat.
[1] How Salmonella bacteria contaminate salad leaves – it's not rocket science. New research reveals secret to Salmonella's ability to contaminate salad – Imperial College London. News release 3.08.2008
http://www3.imperial.ac.uk/newsandeventspggrp/imperialcollege/newssummary/news_3-9-2008-10-4-59?newsid=43294
03.09.2008: Bee disease spreads to wild bumble bees [1]
Otterstatter and Thomson in 2008 suggests that a disease caused by Crithidia bombi ( a trypanosome parasite) is being spread to wild bumble bees from commercially reared bumble bees used to pollinate greenhouse crops.
The Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) of commercial bees is somehow spreading to wild bumble bees which suffer serious declines. Bees are important to pollinate greenhouse crops. Commercial bumble bees are used to pollinate tomato bell pepper, almond and a lot of berries.
Infection with Crithidia bombi causes the bees to loose their ability to distinguish between flowers that contain nectar and those that don't. They make many mistakes by visiting nectar scarce flowers and in so doing, slowly starve to death. Commercially bred bees are used in greenhouses, to pollinate, for example, tomatoes and these bees typically harbour this parasite, while wild bees do not. It is believed that the commercial bees transmitted the parasite to wild populations in some cases. they escape from the greenhouses through vents and a simple mesh could help prevent their escape. [2]
On a study in 2007Otterstatter and Thomson found that within colonies, a bee's rate of contact with infected nestmates emerged as the only significant predictor of infection risk. The authors stress that the activity of bees, in terms of their movement rates and division of labour (e.g., brood care, nest care, foraging), do not influence risk of infection. [3]
The authors predict that the spread of C.bombi from the population of greenhouses will spread to all wild bumble bee species (Bombus spp.).
A high degree of genetic diversity of C. bombi among infections was found by Schmid-Hempel and Funk 2004. The authors suggest that genetic diversification of the population of C. bombi results from strong genotypic host-parasite interactions. [4]
To control the disease the authors suggest improved management of domestic bees, such as the reduction of the parasite loads and the contact with wild bees.
[1] Otterstatter, Michael C.; Thomson, James D.: Does Pathogen Spillover from Commercially Reared Bumble Bees Threaten Wild Pollinators? PLoS ONE 3(7): e2771. 2008 doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0002771
http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0002771
[2] Wikipedia: Crithidia.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crithidia
[3] Otterstatter, Michael C.; Thomson, James D.: Contact networks and transmission of an intestinal pathogen in bumble bee (Bombus impatiens) colonies. Oecologia. 2007 Nov;154(2):411-21. Epub 2007 Aug 23.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17713789
[4] Schmid-Hempel, P.; Funk, C. Reber: The distribution of genotypes of the trypanosome parasite, Crithidia bombi, in populations of its host, Bombus terrestris. Parasitology. 2004, vol. 129 (2), pp. 147-158.
http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=16008790
02.09.2008: Safety assessment of genetically modified crops [1]
Horizontal gene transfer from genetically modified crops to gut microflora most likely occurs with transgenes of microbial origin. Kleter, Peijnenburg and Aarts reviewed the function and characteristics of microbial transgenes and their horizontal transfer other than antibiotic-resistance genes in market-approved genetically modified crops. The authors concluded that the microbial genes reviewed in their study do not give rise to health concerns, and recommend to include all other transgenes not assessed in this study in the premarket safety assessment of genetically modified crops carrying transgenes.
It may be speculated that an increased survivability of pathogens in the environment may indirectly increase the likelihood of exposure to these pathogens. The authors associate this with the presence in soil fungi of analogues of the bacterial gene coding for beta-glucuronidase might originate from a horizontal transfer between bacteria and fungi, which have been reported.
National laws and regulatory procedures differ among each other. Safety assessment should, therefore, follow internationally harmonised approaches such as the FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius guidelines for the safety assessment of foods derived from GM plants and microorganisms. [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7].
The authors point to the fact that the transfer of herbicide resistance genes and others may, in theory, provide a selective advantage to soil microorganisms sensitive to herbicide action, and an increased survivability of pathogens in the environment may indirectly increase the likelihood of exposure to these pathogens.
Assessed transgenes [1]
Bromoxynil nitrilase (BXN): Genetic engineering of BXN into crop plants renders them resistant to application of the herbicide bromoxynil. No safety concer were found by the authors..
3-enolpyruvylshikimate-5-phosphate synthase (cp4 EPSPS): The source of the cp4 epsps gene was the soil bacterium Agrobacterium strain CP4, which was one out of a group of glyphosate-degrading bacteria. The authors, however, conclude that there is no indication that the potential transfer of the cp4 epsps gene from GM crops to microorganisms would alter the pathogenicity.
Glyphosate oxidoreductase (GOX): The source organism Achromobacter LBAA was one of the bacteria isolated from activated industrial and domestic sludge that were capable of degrading glyphosate. Glyphosate, which is converted by GOX, has no role in the treatment of human and animal disease. A potential transfer of GOX from transgenic plants may therefore, not increase pathogenicity of recipient microorganisms.
Phosphinothricin acetyltransferase (PAT): Streptomyces hygroscopicus (bar gene) and Streptomyces viridochromogenes (pat gene) are streptomycetes that occur in soil and produce the natural herbicide bialaphos (phosphinothricin-alanine-alanine). PAT shows substrate specificity for phosphinothricin and similar compounds, a natural antibiotic.which is not used in treatment of human and animal disease. The authors find that the transfer of the PAT enzyme is unlikely to confer increased pathogenicity to pathogens.
Barnase and Barstar: The genes encoding Barnase and Barstar have been cloned from Bacillus amyloliquefaciens which is not pathogen. The authors concluded that the potential transfer of the barnase and barstar transgenes is unlikely to influence the pathogenicity of recipient microorganisms.
DNA adenine methylase (DAM): The dam gene has been isolated from Escherichia coli. The dam transgene is derived from E coli, which is a common resident of human intestines, but also occurs occurs in the pathogenic. Transfer of the dam transgene would not impact on the pathogenicity of recipient microorganisms, according to the authors.
1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC) deaminase: The gene encoding the 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC) deaminase has been isolated from Pseudomonas 6G5. ACC deaminase is directed towards a plant hormone, which is not present in humans and animals. The authors concluded that the potential transfer of the ACC deaminase transgene from GM crops is unlikely to contribute to pathogenicity of recipient microorganisms.
S-adenosylmethionine hydrolase (SAMase): The SAMase gene encoding the enzyme S-adeno-sylmethionine hydrolase (SAMase), is derived from the E coli bacteriophage T3. The authors concluded that horizontal transfer of SAMase is unlikely to contribute to pathogenicity to recipient bacteria.
β-glucuronidase (GUS): The uidA gene, which codes for the beta-glucuronidase (GUS) enzyme, has been isolated from E coli. GUS is present in a range of environments, including the intestinal microflora. The authors concluded therefore that the horizontal transfer of GUS will not pose a safety risc.
Nopaline synthase (NOS): The native tumor-inducing plasmid pTiC58 of Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain C58 harbours among others the gene nos encoding nopaline synthase. The authors say that a horizontal transfer to microorganisms would not affect human and animal safety.
Cry proteins: The source of the cry genes used for genetic modification of crops is Bacillus thuringiensis, which produced spores containing crystals that are toxic to insects. Reviews of safety data found no toxicity of Cry proteins to humans. The auithors found no threat to humans and domestic animals should a transfer to microorganism take place.
[1] Kleter, Gijs A.; Peijnenburg, Ad A. C. M.; Aarts, Henk J. M.: Health Considerations Regarding Horizontal Transfer of Microbial Transgenes Present in Genetically Modified Crops. J Biomed Biotechnol. 2005; 2005(4): 326–352. doi: 10.1155/JBB.2005.326.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1364539
[2] Codex Alimentarius Commission. Codex Principles and Guidelines on Foods Derived from Biotechnology. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organisation; 2003. Codex Alimentarius Commission, Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme
http://www.bfr.bund.de/cm/208/codex_principles_and_guidelines_on_foods_derived_from_biotechnology.pdf
[3] CAC/GL 44-2003: Principles for the Risk Analysis of Foods Derived from Modern Biotechnology.
http://www.codexalimentarius.net/download/standards/10007/CXG_044e.pdf.
[4] CAC/GL 45-2003: Guideline for the Conduct of Food Safety Assessment of Foods Derived from Recombinant-DNA Plants.
http://www.codexalimentarius.net/download/standards/10021/CXG_045e.pdf
[5] CAC/GL 46-2003: Guideline for the Conduct of Food Safety Assessment of Foods Produced Using Recombiant-DNA Microorganisms.
http://www.codexalimentarius.net/download/standards/10025/CXG_046e.pdf
[6] CAC/GL 68-2008: Guideline for the Conduct of Food Safety
Assessment of Foods Derived from Recombinant-DNA Animals
http://www.fsis.usda.gov/regulations/Delegate_Report_7FBT/index.asp
[7] FAO/CODEX: The Annex on Food Safety Assessment of Foods Derived from Recombinant DNA-Plants Modified for Nutritional or Health Benefits.
http://www.fsis.usda.gov/regulations/Delegate_Report_7FBT/index.asp
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