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30.04.2011: Iodine administration to reduce damage caused by radiation following a nuclear accident [1]
Iodine- 131 is concentrated in the thyroid gland. It is one of the most carcinogenic nuclear fission products. If people are expected to be exposed to a significant amount of environmental radioactive iodine (iodine-131 in fallout), they should take non-radioactive potassium iodide tablets. The typical adult dose is one 130 mg tablet per 24 hours, supplying 100 mg (100,000 micrograms) iodine, as iodide ion. Typical daily dose of iodine to maintain normal health is of order 100 micrograms. By ingesting this large amount of non-radioactive iodine, radioactive iodine uptake by the thyroid gland is minimized.

KI can protect only the thyroid from radioactive iodine, not other parts of the body. KI cannot reverse the health effects caused by radioactive iodine once damage to the thyroid has occurred. KI cannot protect the body from radioactive elements other than radioactive iodine.

Tablets approved by FDA come in two strengths, 130 milligram (mg) and 65 mg. Each milliliter (mL) of the oral liquid solution contains 65 mg of KI.

According to the FDA, the following doses are appropriate to take after internal contamination with radioactive iodine:

- Adults should take 130 mg (one 130 mg tablet.

- Women who are breastfeeding should take the adult dose of 130 mg.

- Children between 3 and 18 years of age should take 65 mg (one 65 mg tablet OR 1 mL of solution). Children who are adult size (greater than or equal to 150 pounds) should take the full adult dose, regardless of their age.

- Infants and children between 1 month and 3 years of age should take 32 mg (½ of a 65 mg tablet OR 1/2 mL of solution). This dose is for both nursing and non-nursing infants and children.

- Newborns from birth to 1 month of age should be given 16 mg (1/4 of a 65 mg tablet or 1/4 mL of solution). This dose is for both nursing and non-nursing newborn infants.

Frankfort, Roos and Franssen 2003 recommend 100 mg non- radioactive iodine to block the absorption of radioactive iodine by the thyroid gland after a nuclear accident. The authors stress the problem of a well-regulated distribution and thorough protocols that staff of hospitals are familiar with. The solution of both problems are not guaranteed. [2]

Measures to reduce radioactivity in drinking water, agriculture and food [3]

Smith et al. 2001 suggest that reduction of radioactivity in drinking water should focus on water treatment and distribution. Other measures to reduce human exposition to radionuclides is to ban consumption of fish. Deboning of fish may reduce strontium. Lake liming may reduce radiostrontium in fish, however, it is ineffective for radiocaesium. The authors stress the importance of the provision of accurate information of the public.

Agricultural countermeasures used between 1986-2006 to mitigate the consequences of the Chernobyl accident in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine averted 30-40% of the internal collective dose that would have been received by the residents of affected regions without the use of countermeasures, according to a study of Fesenco and colleagues 2007. This is not comforting as nearly 40% of all Europe and parts of Asia were compromised. [4]

Deposition of radionuclides and decontamination of vegetables [5]

Tschiersch et al. 2009 studied the dry deposition of radionuclides to leafy vegetables under controlled greenhouse conditions, and the effect of washing of these vegetables. The authors found that the deposition depends on the leaf area, stomatal aperture, and plant morphology. Iodine deposition was significantly higher compared to the particulate caesium deposition. Washing of contaminated vegetables efficient for iodine ut performed better for caesium.

Contaminated area and foodstuffs will be dangerously radioactive for the next three centuries [6]

In many European countries levels of I-131, Cs-134/137, Sr-90, and other radionuclides in milk, dairy products, vegetables, fruits, grains, meat, and fish increased as much as 1,000-fold immediately after the catastrophe. Incorporated Cs-137 and Sr-90 in the heavily contaminated territories increased from 1991 to 2005. The contaminated areas will be dangerously radioactive for roughly the next three centuries, say Nesterenko and colleagues 2009.

Chernobyl contamination of atmosphere, water and soil [7]

Yablokov et al.2009 report that the air particulate activity over all of the Northern Hemisphere was up to 1 million times higher than before the Chernobyl accident, producing ionic, aerosol, and gas structure of the surface air measured by electroconductivity and air radiolysis. The radionuclides are still being transported by forest fires over hundreds of kilometres, and washout contaminates freshwater ecosystems The radionuclides concentrate in sediments, water, plants, and animals. Plants with deep roots bring the radionuclides back to the surface increasing actual values of internal irradiation among the population of the contaminated area.

Anti-nuclear movements in Japan [8]

Little was known related to the impact of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 due to the US censorship on public information on radionuclides. The hydrogen bomb test by the US in the Bikini atoll on March 1, 1954 exposed the crew of the Japanese fishing wessel "Lucky Dragon No.5" to radiation and Mr Aikichi Kuboyama died of the causes of the exposure. This incidence brought the danger of radionuclides at headlines. As a result of public petition, the Atomic Energy Basic Law established in December 1955 forbids the use of atomic energy for military projects.

[1] CDC Emergency Preparednes and Response: Potassium Iodide (KI)

http://www.bt.cdc.gov/radiation/ki.asp

[2] Frankfort SV, Roos JC, Franssen EJ: Iodine prophylaxis to prevent radiation damage following nuclear disasters. Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd. 2003 Aug 23;147(34):1641-4.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12966630

[3] Smith JT, Voitsekhovitch OV, Håkanson L, Hilton J: A critical review of measures to reduce radioactive doses from drinking water and consumption of freshwater foodstuffs. J Environ Radioact. 2001;56(1-2):11-32.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11446114

[4] Fesenko SV, Alexakhin RM, Balonov MI, Bogdevitch IM, Howard BJ, Kashparov VA, Sanzharova NI, Panov AV, Voigt G, Zhuchenka YM: An extended critical review of twenty years of countermeasures used in agriculture after the Chernobyl accident.Sci Total Environ. 2007 Sep 20;383(1-3):1-24.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17573097

[5] Tschiersch J, Shinonaga T, Heuberger H: Dry deposition of gaseous radioiodine and particulate radiocaesium onto leafy vegetables. Sci Total Environ. 2009 Oct 15;407(21):5685-93.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19640563

[6] Nesterenko AV, Nesterenko VB, Yablokov AV: 12. Chernobyl's radioactive contamination of food and people. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2009 Nov;1181:289-302.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20002056

[7] Yablokov AV, Nesterenko VB, Nesterenko AV: 8. Atmospheric, water, and soil contamination after Chernobyl. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2009 Nov;1181:223-36

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20002050

[8] Yamazaki M: Nuclear energy in postwar Japan and anti-nuclear movements in the 1950s. Hist Sci (Tokyo). 2009;19(2):132-45.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20521422

28.04.2011: Water quality for recreational waters [1]
According to the WHO guidelines for recreational waters contamination from agriculture and sewage treatment, fish and aquatic mammals and from animals grazing near rivers such as sheep, goats and deer produce inputs into rivers with very high concentrations of bacteria and viruses including a wide range of pathogenic organisms such as liver fluke. In rivers used for swimming, safe levels of bacteria and viruses can be established based on risk assessment.

Under certain conditions bacteria can colonise freshwaters occasionally making large rafts of filamentous mats known as sewage fungus, usually Sphaerotilus natans. The presence of such organisms is almost always an indicator of extreme organic pollution and would be expected to be matched with low dissolved oxygen concentrations and high BOD values.

Escherichia coli is used to indicate the presence of recent human or animal faecal contamination.

Free-living microorganisms

Natural inhabitants of marine aquatic environments are also potential pathogens. Vibrio cholerae and other Vibrio species are natural inhabitants of marine aquatic environments. They cause gastrointestinal infections, wound and ear infections. The occurrence of vibrios does not correlate with the occurrence of the traditionally used bacterial faecal index organisms, except in case of disease outbreaks.

Aeromonas spp. are present in surface fresh and marine waters with densities ranging from <1 to 1000 cells per ml. Sewage can also contain elevated numbers (106–108 cells per ml) of aeromonads. Aeromonas causes gastroenteritis. wound infections pneumonia.

Free-living amoebae of the members of the genus Acanthamoeba, Naegleria fowleri and Balamuthia mandrillaris infect humans. Some Acanthamoeba species are pathogenic to humans and cause two clinically distinct diseases affecting the central nervous system: granulomatous amoebic encephalitis (GAE) and inflammation of the cornea (keratitis). Naegleria fowleri, which is found in thermal freshwater habitats worldwide, causes primary amoebic meningoencephalitis in humans, which is usually fatal, with death occurring in 3–10 days after exposure. Balamuthia mandrillaris encephalitis is largely a disease of the immunocompromised host.

No differentiation between human and non-human faecal sources of pathogens [2]

Because faecal matter can be a major source of pathogens in ambient water, and because it is not practical or feasible to monitor for the full spectrum of all pathogens that may occur in water, water quality criteria are specified throughout the world in terms of faecal indicator organism densities. For decades, these faecal indicator organisms have served as surrogates for potential pathogens and subsequent health risks in both recreational and drinking waters.

The EPA recommended recreational water quality criteria do not differentiate between faecal sources of pathogens. Thus, EPA’s regulatory premise concerning recreational water quality has been that nonhuman-derived human pathogens in faecally contaminated waters are as hazardous as their human-derived counterparts.

Monitoring pathogens at recreation beaches [3]

Beaches are monitored for faecal indicator bacteria (typically Escherichia coli) in order to protect the public from potential sewage contamination. The authors criticize that there is no universal standard for sample collection and analysis or results interpretation. Monitoring policies are developed by individual beach management jurisdictions, and applications are highly variable across and within lakes, states, and provinces.

Indicator microbes may predict pathogens and help to improve human protection at beaches [4]

Shah et al 2011 report an inverse correlation between moisture content of beach sand and most faecal indicator microbes. Some indicator microbes were found to be associated with pathogens such as nematode larvae, Candida yeasts and methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus.

The authors suggest, therefore, that indicator microbes may be useful for monitoring sand of beaches to predict the presence of these pathogens and water quality to improve human health protection at recreational beaches.

Marine recreational water quality [5]

Shibata et al. 2004 tested the microbial status at two US beaches using enterococci, Escherichia coli, faecal coliform, total coliform and C. perfringens as indicator microbes. The authors found that the results did not vary between one indicator microbe and another, and did not change between seasons with different rainfall, temperature, pH, and salinity.

The shoreline points presented highest microbiological contamination which decreased at offshore points. Beach sands within the wash zone tested positive for all indicator microbes, suggesting that samples should be taken at this point. The authors stress further that concentrations of indicator microbes do not necessarily correlate with one another. The authors concluded that beach advisories, based on exceedance of water quality guidelines varies according the chosen indicator.

Cladophora algae mats in the Great Lakes are a shelter for pathogens [6]

According to Verhougstraete and colleagues 2010 the algae Cladophora form free-floating mats which may strand on recreational beaches of the Great Lakes. Pathogens such as Escherichia coli, enterococci, Shigella, Campylobacter, and Salmonella find nutrients and shelter in Cladophora mats, affecting the water quality. The authors considers the traditional faecal indicators at beaches with Cladophora presence asinadequate to predicting the presence of faecal contamination.

Bacterial indicators and EPA water quality guidelines for recreational waters [7]

Wade et al. 2003 support the use of enterococci in marine water at U.S. Environmental Protection Agency guideline levels. They found, however, that in fresh water, Escherichia coli was better suited to predict gastrointestinal illness than are enterococci or other bacterial indicators. Indicators of viral contamination were considered by the authors as strong predictors of gastrointestinal illness in both fresh and marine water.

Faecal indicator bacteria monitoring and effect of tide [8]

Boehm et al. 2005 report that marine beach water quality is monitored in early morning once a week without respect to tidal condition. The authors assess the effect of tide on this monitoring system. They found that enterococci concentrations during spring tides were higher than data of neap tides. Spring-ebb tides yielded the highest enterococci concentrations. The authors concluded that tide should be considered in the design of beach monitoring programs.

[1] WHO: Recreational ("Bathing") Waters

http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/bathing/en/

[2] EPA: Recreational: Water Quality Criteria

http://water.epa.gov/scitech/swguidance/standards/criteria/health/recreation/index.cfm

[3] Nevers MB, Whitman RL: Policies and practices of beach monitoring in the Great Lakes, USA: a critical review. J Environ Monit. 2010 Mar;12(3):581-90. Epub 2010 Jan 6.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20445845

[4] Shah AH, Abdelzaher AM, Phillips M, Hernandez R, Solo-Gabriele HM, Kish J, Scorzetti G, Fell JW, Diaz MR, Scott TM, Lukasik J, Harwood VJ, McQuaig S, Sinigalliano CD, Gidley ML, Wanless D, Agar A, Lui J, Stewart JR, Plano LR, Fleming LE: Indicator microbes correlate with pathogenic bacteria, yeast, and helminthes in sand at a subtropical recreational beach site. J.Appl Microbiol. 2011 Mar 29. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2011.05013.x

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21447014

[5]Shibata T, Solo-Gabriele HM, Fleming LE, Elmir S: Monitoring marine recreational water quality using multiple microbial indicators in an urban tropical environment. Water Res. 2004 Jul;38(13):3119-31.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2548301/?tool=pubmed

[6] Verhougstraete MP, Byappanahalli MN, Rose JB, Whitman RL: Cladophora in the Great Lakes: impacts on beach water quality and human health. Water Sci Technol. 2010;62(1):68-76.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20595755

[7] Wade TJ, Pai N, Eisenberg JN, Colford JM Jr: Do U.S. Environmental Protection Agency water quality guidelines for recreational waters prevent gastrointestinal illness? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Environ Health Perspect. 2003 Jun;111(8):1102-9.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1241558/?tool=pubmed

[8] Boehm AB, Weisberg SB: Tidal forcing of enterococci at marine recreational beaches at fortnightly and semidiurnal frequencies. Environ Sci Technol. 2005 Aug 1;39(15):5575-83.

ftp://ftp.sccwrp.org/pub/download/DOCUMENTS/AnnualReports/2005_06AnnualReport/AR0506_263-276.pdf

27.04.2011: Novel yeast species
A novel yeast species (Saturnispora quitensis) was isolated from the fruit of an unidentified species of bramble (Rubus sp.), collected from a forest reserve, near Quito, in Ecuador. Genetic sequency presented close relationship to Saturnispora hagleri, a Drosophila-associated yeast found in Brazil. The research was made by James et al. 2011 of the National Collection of Yeast Cultures at the Institute of Food Research in Norwich, and Professor Javier Carvajal of the Ecuadorian team from the Colección de Levaduras Quito. The yeasts collection at the institute is used for bread, brewing and other biotechnological applications. [1]

Two new yeast species, Wickerhamiella pagnoccae sp. nov. and Candida tocantinsensis sp nov., were isolated by Barbos et al 2011 from the nectar of flower bracts of Heliconia psittacorum collected in a Cerrado ecosystem of the state of Tocantins, Northern Brazil. The authors found Wickerhamiella pagnoccae sp. nov. closely related to Candida jalapaonensis. [2]

Fermentation technology [3]

Yeast fermentation technology comprises the production of bread, wine, beer, cheese and other dairy products. Specific microorganisms present desirable properties such as bacteriocin production, and probiotic properties produced mainly by yeasts and lactic acid bacteria. Fermentation improves the flavour, aroma and texture and increase the nutritional quality. Starter culture technology can be used for the control of the manufacturing operation, and management of product quality. Plessas et al. 2011 reviewed these new trends in fermented food products focusing in kefir grains and bread production.

Bautista-Gallego et al. 2011 assessed the yeast populations associated with table olive production analysing the of the 5.8S-ITS region and sequencing of the D1/D2 domains of the 26S rDNA gene. The authors found two isolates of Wickerhamomyces anomalus with a strong β-glucosidase and esterase activity, and a moderate catalase and lipolytic activity. These yeasts might be important for starters, alone or in combination with lactic acid bacteria, to improve olive processing. [4]

Aroma compound production of important yeast strains such as Saccharomyces ( Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Saccharomyces uvarum Saccharomyces kudriavzevii) and hybrids were analysed by Gamero and colleagues 2011. The authors stress that de novo synthesis by yeasts affects some lipid derivatives, shikimic derivatives and terpenes including varietal aroma compounds, such as gama-lactones, benzenoids, volatile phenols, vanillin derivatives and terpenols, influencing the modulation of wine aroma depending on the used yeast species. [5]

Mendoza and colleagues 2011 proposes the inclusion of Kloeckera apiculata mc1 as an adjunct culture to Saccharomyces cerevisiae mc2 to improve organoleptic properties of red wines.

Oenococcus oeni X(2)L should be added after completion of the alcoholic fermentation to enhance sensory characteristics. [6]

Oil producing yeasts [7]

Some yeasts, such as Lipomyces starkeyi, Rhodosporidium toruloides, Rhodotorula glutinis, and Yarrowia lipolytica present advantages over microalgae in the production of oil. According to Ageitos et al. 2011 the duplication times of yeasts are lower than 1 h, they are less dependent on season or climate conditions, and their cultures can be easily scaled up, and some yeasts may accumulate oil up to 80% of their dry weight.

Yu and colleagues 2011 demonstrated the production of oil by the yeast Cryptococcus curvatus using dilute sulfuric acid pretreatment of wheat straw. The hydrolysate was composed of sugars, along with acetic acid, furfural, and hydroxymethylfurfural. Cryptococcus curvatus showed the highest lipid concentrations with insignificant impacts caused by hydroxymethylfurfural while furfural inhibited cell growth and lipid content up to 72.0%. [8]

Sourdough fermentation [9]

Vrancken et al. 2011 found that increased expression of genes involved in peptide and amino acid metabolism and genes involved in plantaricin production and lipoteichoic acid biosynthesis cellular mechanism allow Lactobacillus plantarum to function at low pH values of sourdough environment .

[1] James SA, Cadet GM, Carvajal EJ, Portero PB, Cross K, Bond CJ, Roberts IN: Saturnispora quitensis sp. nov., a yeast species isolated from the Maquipucuna cloud forest reserve in Ecuador. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol. 2011 Feb 25. Doi: 10.1099/ijs.0.030759-0

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21335499

[2] Barbosa A, Morais C, Morais P, Rosa L, Pimenta R, Lachance MA, Rosa C: Wickerhamiella pagnoccae sp. nov. and Candida tocantinsensis sp nov., two ascomycetous yeasts from flower bracts of Heliconia psittacorum (Heliconiaceae). Int J Syst Evol Microbiol. 2011 Apr 8.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21478396

[3] Plessas S, Alexopoulos A, Voidarou C, Stavropoulou E, Bezirtzoglou E: Microbial ecology and quality assurance in food fermentation systems. The case of kefir grains application.Anaerobe. 2011 Apr 8.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21497663

[4] Bautista-Gallego J, Rodríguez-Gómez F, Barrio E, Querol A, Garrido-Fernández A, Arroyo-López FN: Exploring the yeast biodiversity of green table olive industrial fermentations for technological applications. Int J Food Microbiol. 2011 Mar 25.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21497408

[5] Gamero A, Hernández-Orte P, Querol A, Ferreira V: Effect of aromatic precursor addition to wine fermentations carried out with different Saccharomyces species and their hybrids. Int J Food Microbiol. 2011 May 14;147(1):33-44.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21474195

[6] Mendoza LM, Merín MG, Morata VI, Farías ME: Characterization of wines produced by mixed culture of autochthonous yeasts and Oenococcus oeni from the northwest region of Argentina. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol. 2011 Apr 2.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21461745

[7] Ageitos JM, Vallejo JA, Veiga-Crespo P, Villa TG: Oily yeasts as oleaginous cell factories. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 2011 Apr 5.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21465305

[8] Yu X, Zheng Y, Dorgan KM, Chen S: Oil production by oleaginous yeasts using the hydrolysate from pretreatment of wheat straw with dilute sulfuric acid. Bioresour Technol. 2011 May;102(10):6134-40.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21463940

[9] Vrancken G, De Vuyst L, Rimaux T, Allemeersch J, Weckx S: Lactobacillus plantarum IMDO 130201, a wheat sourdough isolate, adapts to growth in wheat sourdough simulation medium at different pH values through differential gene expression. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2011 Apr 1.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21460118

27.04.2011: Fructose increases yeast ageing [1]

Semchyshyn et al. 2011 found that fructose media resulted in more pronounced age-related decline in yeast reproductive ability and higher cell mortality compared with yeast cells grown on glucose

The authors draw their conclusions on viability and markers of carbonyl/oxidative stress data. Yeast growing on fructose has higher levels of carbonyl groups in proteins, alfa-dicarbonyl compounds and reactive oxygen species resulting in increased age-related decline in yeast reproductive ability and higher cell mortality.

[1] Semchyshyn HM, Lozinska LM, Miedzobrodzki J, Lushchak VI: Fructose and glucose differentially affect aging and carbonyl/oxidative stress parameters in Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells. Carbohydr Res. 2011 May 15;346(7):933-8.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21459368

24.04.2011: Diagnosis of food allergy [1]
Accurate diagnosis of cow's milk allergy by determining the immunoglobulin E (IgE)-mediated response may be more useful than skin or blood tests performed with whole extracts. Fiocchi et al 2011 stresses that difficulties must be resoled to find and validate markers and correlate them to disease and patient profiles, meanwhile oral food challenge remains the reference standard for the diagnosis of this allergy.

Ovomucoid-specific IgE concentrations predicting egg allergy [2]

Ovomucoid-specific IgE antibodies as predictors of whether children could tolerate heat-treated egg were assessed by Ando and colleagues 20008. They found that the quantitative measurements of specific IgE antibodies to both egg white and ovomucoid and the evaluation against the suggested positive and negative decision points for specific IgE may be useful in the diagnosis of egg allergy. The positive decision point was 7.4 kU(A)/L, and the negative decision point, was 0.6 kU(A)/L for raw egg white. For heated egg white the positive decision point was 10.8 kU(A)/L, and the negative decision point was 1.2 kU(A)/L.

Guidelines of the Dutch College of General Practitioners [3]

Brand 2011 reports that the diagnosis of food allergy includes detailed history and reproducible symptoms and double-blind oral food challenges. Pattern must elicited from the history to confirm food allergy. Measuring specific immunoglobulin E in serum is not a help in the diagnosis of food allergy because asymptomatic sensitisation is common, says the author.

The 2011 revised version of the practice guideline on food hypersensitivity in infants of the Dutch College of General Practitioners also states that the examination of serum specific IgE levels should not be used in the diagnosis of food allergy, and a double-blind placebo-controlled food challenge is recommended. [4]

Quantification of Ara h 2-specific IgE for peanut allergy and soy bean allergy diagnosis [5]

Nicolaou and Custovic 2011 write that the quantification of Ara h 2-specific IgE may accurately discriminate peanut allergy from tolerance may be more useful to predicting the presence and severity of clinical allergy than skin or blood tests based on whole extracts, however, until this is confirmed by further studies oral food challenge remains the gold standard for accurate diagnosis.

The authors report that different pollen and dietary exposures produce regional different results, for peanut-allergy sensitisation to Ara h 1-3 in the USA, to Ara h 9 in Spain and to Ara h 8 in Sweden. Soybean allergy sensitisation to Gly m 5 or Gly m 6 allergens may increase the risk to severe allergic reactions.

Ballmer-Weber and Hoffmann-Sommergruber 2011 report that celeriac, carrot and tomato are the most prevalent allergenic vegetables, whereas fruit allergy is mainly induced by apple, peach and kiwi. In kiwifruit allergy Act d 1 and Act d 3 were identified as potential marker allergens for severe symptoms. For celeriac allergy, however, such markers are still missing. The authors stress that the diagnosis of fruit and vegetable allergy in birch pollen-sensitized patients should not be excluded on a negative IgE testing to extracts. Bet v 1-related allergens are often under-represented in extracts. [6]

Mediterranean type of diet reduces asthma in children [7]

According to the PANACEA study the adherence to the Mediterranean type of diet is associated with lower prevalence of asthma symptoms, among 10-12 years old children: Greater adherence to the Mediterranean diet was inversely associated with ever had wheeze, exercise wheeze, ever had diagnosed asthma. No significant associations were found between asthma symptoms and consumption of fruits, vegetables, legumes, cereals, dairy, salty snacks, or margarine/butter consumption, while increased fish and meat intake was associated with less asthma symptoms. The authors suggest an inverse relationship between level of adherence to the Mediterranean diet and prevalence of asthma in school-aged children.

Food allergies and asthma [8]

Wang and Liu 2011 report that children with food allergies together with asthma are more likely to have near-fatal or fatal allergic reactions to food and more likely to have severe asthma. The authors stress that a causal link has not been determined, however, both condition together should increase the awareness of the severity of these ailments.

Food-induced anaphylaxis is the leading single cause of emergency treatment [9]

According to Järvinen 2011 peanut, tree nuts, and shellfish are the most commonly implicated foods in anaphylaxis, although milk is a common trigger in children, and asthma increases the risk of severe reactions. The authors stress that schools and restaurants have inadequate management plans and symptom and lack in staff education. Markers to predict risk of anaphylaxis and news therapies should be developed.

Costs of food allergies [10]

According to Patel et al. 2011, 4% to 6% of children and 1% to 2% of adults in the United States are suffering of food allergies. Direct medical costs and indirect costs of food-induced allergic reactions and anaphylaxis in the United States amount to half a billion dollars in 2007. Ambulatory visits accounted for more than half of the costs.

Food allergy training for restaurant staff must be improved [11]

Deaths caused by food-induced anaphylactic reactions are increasing, with most caused by food purchased outside the home. Bailey et al. 2011 report gaps in restaurant staff's knowledge of allergy. The authors stress the necessity to improve food allergy training practice for restaurant staff.

No proof of food allergenicity of genetically modified plants [12]

Goodman and Tetteh 2011 reviewing studies related to a possible allergenicity of genetic modified organisms found no documented proof of an adverse effect resulting from foods produced from GM plants. The authors suggest improvements for the allergenicity assessment of GMO plants.

[1] Fiocchi A, Bouygue GR, Albarini M, Restani P: Molecular diagnosis of cow's milk allergy.Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol. 2011 Apr 17.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2150532

[2] Ando H, Movérare R, Kondo Y, Tsuge I, Tanaka A, Borres MP, Urisu A: Utility of ovomucoid-specific IgE concentrations in predicting symptomatic egg allergy. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2008 Sep;122(3):583-8.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18692888

[3] Brand PL: Dutch College of General Practitioners' practice guideline can be more firm - the food allergy test does not exist. Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd. 2011;155(18):A3104.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21466732

[4] Luning-Koster MN, Lucassen PL, Boukes FS, Goudswaard AN: Summary of the Dutch College of General Practitioners' practice guideline on food hypersensitivity. Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd. 2011;155(18):A3063.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21466730

[5] Nicolaou N, Custovic A: Molecular diagnosis of peanut and legume allergy: Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol. 2011 Apr 2.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21464707

[6] Ballmer-Weber BK, Hoffmann-Sommergruber K: Molecular diagnosis of fruit and vegetable allergy. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol. 2011 Apr 1.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21460714

[7] Arvaniti F, Priftis KN, Papadimitriou A, Papadopoulos M, Roma E, Kapsokefalou M, Anthracopoulos MB, Panagiotakos DB: Adherence to the Mediterranean type of diet is associated with lower prevalence of asthma symptoms, among 10-12 years old children: the PANACEA study. Pediatr Allergy Immunol. 2011 May;22(3):283-289. doi: 10.1111/j.1399-3038.2010.01113.x.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21457335

[8] Wang J, Liu AH: Food allergies and asthma. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol. 2011 Apr 5.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21467928

[9] Järvinen KM: Food-induced anaphylaxis. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol. 2011 Apr 5.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21467923

[10] Patel DA, Holdford DA, Edwards E, Carroll NV: Estimating the economic burden of food-induced allergic reactions and anaphylaxis in the United States. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2011 Apr 11.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21489610

[11] Bailey S, Albardiaz R, Frew AJ, Smith H: Restaurant staff's knowledge of anaphylaxis and dietary care of people with allergies. Clin Exp Allergy. 2011 May;41(5):713-7. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2222.2011.03748.x.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21488998

[12] Goodman RE, Tetteh AO: Suggested Improvements for the Allergenicity Assessment of Genetically Modified Plants Used in Foods. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep. 2011 Apr 13.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21487714

24.04.2011: Food allergen labelling regulation in Japan[1]

Akiyama, Imai and Ebisawa 2011 describe the history of the food-labelling system for specific allergenic ingredients (i.e., egg, milk, wheat, buckwheat, and peanut) which became required by law in Japan on April 1, 2002. Foods containing walnut and soy bean must be labelled with subspecific allergenic ingredients, shrimp/prawn and crab has also become mandatory. Official guidelines of 2006 determine that any food containing allergen proteins at greater than 10mg/kg must be labelled under the Law.

[1] Akiyama H, Imai T, Ebisawa M: Japan food allergen labeling regulation-history and evaluation.Adv Food Nutr Res. 2011;62:139-71.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21504823

21.04.2011: Anthropogenic influences on the hydrology of a region [1]

Extensive deforestation, followed by herbaceous or scrubby vegetation reduce evaporation and increase runoff. Recolonization by forest increased evapotranspiration and improved infiltration of water in the soil. The findings of Lacombe et al 2010 may be applied in the study of the hydrology of the Amazon region where actual anthropogenic changes equal that of the Mekon Basin.

The authors studied the hydrological changes in two catchments of the lower Mekong Basin that were either heavily bombed in southern Laos or depopulated in northern Laos during1955 to 1975, and political instability up to the end of the 1980s.

Destruction of forest cover to expose the enemy

Between 1965 and 1975 South-East Asia as many bombs were released as during the Second World War, deforesting 8 000 and 40 000 km² the vegetation cover of the Ho Chi Minh trail, amounting to 70% of its surface area. Herbaceous or scrubby vegetation took over resulting in a reduction in average annual evapotranspiration and a substantial increase in runoff in that area, estimated over 50% more between 1972 and 1975, then 15% more between 1975 and 2004.

Flight from the war and its political consequences

The northern Laos, experienced an exodus from Laos of 730 000 to one million fled Laos, escaping from war an the following Pathet Laoregime in 1975. The abandoned land was recolonized by forest. The regenerated vegetation resulted in increased evapotranspiration and improved infiltration of water in the soil reversing trend. The authors calculate a 30% decrease in runoff, between 1995 and 2004.

War and population exodus explains Mekong hydrology

The authors demonstrated trends towards increase or decrease of the Mekong's discharge that were closely correlation with war and extensive land-use changes the region during the 20th Century.

The authors found that hydrological changes were not influenced by the climate as rainfall remained stable. Hydroelectric dams drain only 2% of the catchments and have only a slight influence on the river's discharge. Urban expansion is still a marginal phenomenon in Laos, where the demographic pressure remains low.

The authors stress that new land uses, such as intensive mining and extraction of timber and clearance for agriculture may generate major problems in the short term, such as flooding or conversely water shortages, or pollution. Forest cover changes in tropical areas, such as deforestation is expected to perpetuate at a high rate over the coming decades.

[1] Lacombe G, Pierret V, Hoanh CT, Sengtaheuanghoung O, NobleAD: Conflict, migration and land-cover changes in Indochina: a hydrological assessment. Ecohydrology, 2010; 3 (4): 382 DOI: 10.1002/eco.166.

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/eco.166/full

20.04.2011: Dozens of Fish Species Threatened in the Mediterranean [1]
Many commercial fish, several types of sharks, rays and more than 40 species of fish may disappear from the waters of the Mediterranean sea in a near future. Many of the specialities of the Mediterranean cuisine are frozen and flown in from abroad.

According to Kent Carpenter, leading author of a report of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the population of the blue fin tuna has declined by 50 percent in the last 40 years due to overfishing.

The report says that half of the Mediterranean's 76 species of sharks and rays are considered threatened or endangered. Twelve types of bony fish are likewise in trouble.

The use of trawling nets, as well as the illegal use of driftnets, are a major reason for the decline of the marine species of the Mediterranean Sea, which includes dolphins, turtles and birds. Catch quotas set each year are too high to allow fish stocks to maintain health. And there is widespread disregard of those quotas. The group calls for more comprehensive protection programs in the region as well as strict regulations governing the methods of fishing that are allowed.

[1] Plenty more fish in the sea? Not for much longer. IUCN 19.04.2011.

http://www.iucn.org/about/union/secretariat/offices/iucnmed/?7268/Plenty-more-fish-in-the-sea-Not-for-much-longer

18.04.2011: EFSA safety report on caramel colours and their by-products [1]
Caramel colours are added to food to give a deeper shade of brown and are widely used in a large variety of foods such as non-alcoholic flavoured drinks, confectionary, soups, seasonings, and beer. They are complex mixtures of compounds produced by carefully controlled heat treatment of sugars. They are classified into four classes depending on the reagent used in their manufacture (ammonia, sulphite or no reagent), and generally known by the E numbers E150a, E150b, E150c, and E150b.

The European Food Safety Authority sets Acceptable Daily Intakes (ADIs) for all caramel colours. EFSA is concerned about the safety of by-products, such as furan and 5-hydroxymethyl-2-furfural (5-HMF), which are formed during the manufacturing of caramel colours and vary considerably depending on the production process.

The Panel recommended to keep the levels of the by-products in caramel colours as low as technologically possible as defined in Commission Directive 2008/128/CE laying down specific purity criteria concerning colours for use in foodstuffs [2]. However, the caramel specifications which are defined there should be updated to include also maximum levels for these constituents. Purity criteria and tests on caramel colours had been developed by Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) specification for Caramel Colours [3]

The Panel also states that caramel colours are neither genotoxic, nor carcinogenic and that there is no evidence to show that they have any adverse effects on human reproduction or for the developing child.

ADIs for caramel colours

An Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) of 300 mg per kg body weight per day (mg/kg bw/day) applicable to E150b, E150c, and E150d colours, and ADI of 100 mg/kg bw/day for caramel E150c. the Panel has set a more restrictive ADI for E150c considering possible effects on the immune system of one of its constituents, 2-acetyl-4-tetrahydroxibutylimidazole (THI).

The Panel also points out that adults and children who are high consumers of foods containing these colours could exceed the ADIs established for three of these colours (E150a, E150c, E150d) if they are used at the maximum levels reported by industry.

By-products

The scientists on the Panel also looked at other constituents resulting from the production process, namely 2-acetyl-4-tetrahydroxibutylimidazole (THI) present in E150c, and 4-methylimidazole (4-MEI) present in E150c and E150d, for which EU specifications already foresee sufficient protective maximum levels for their presence in the colours.

However, the Panel considered it would be prudent to keep their levels in caramel colours as low as technologically feasible, recommending further research to reduce the formation of of these by-products during the production of caramel colours.

Council Directive 89/107/EEC [4] states that all food additives must be kept under continuous observation and must be re-evaluated whenever necessary in the light of changing conditions of use and new scientific information.

CSPI says caramel colouring of colas is carcinogenic

EFSA safety report on caramel colours and their by-products %5B1%5D Caramel colours are added to food to give a deeper shade of brown and are widely used in a large variety of foods such as non-alcoholic flavoured drinks, confectionary, soups, seasonings, and beer. They are complex mixtures of compounds produced by carefully controlled heat treatment of sugars. They are classified into four classes depending on the reagent used in their manufacture %28ammonia, sulphite or no reagent%29, and generally known by the E numbers E150a, E150b, E150c, and E150b. The European Food Safety Authority sets Acceptable Daily Intakes %28ADIs%29 for all caramel colours. EFSA is concerned about the safety of by-products, such as furan and 5-hydroxymethyl-2-furfural %285-HMF%29, which are formed during the manufacturing of caramel colours and vary considerably depending on the production process. The Panel recommended to keep the levels of the by-products in caramel colours as low as technologically possible as defined in Commission Directive 2008/128/CE laying down specific purity criteria concerning colours for use in foodstuffs %5B2%5D. However, the caramel specifications which are defined there should be updated to include also maximum levels for these constituents. Purity criteria and tests on caramel colours had been developed by Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives %28JECFA%29 specification for Caramel Colours %5B3%5D The Panel also states that caramel colours are neither genotoxic, nor carcinogenic and that there is no evidence to show that they have any adverse effects on human reproduction or for the developing child. ADIs for caramel colours An Acceptable Daily Intake %28ADI%29 of 300 mg per kg body weight per day %28mg/kg bw/day%29 applicable to E150b, E150c, and E150d colours, and ADI of 100 mg/kg bw/day for caramel E150c. the Panel has set a more restrictive ADI for E150c considering possible effects on the immune system of one of its constituents, 2-acetyl-4-tetrahydroxibutylimidazole %28THI%29. The Panel also points out that adults and children who are high consumers of foods containing these colours could exceed the ADIs established for three of these colours %28E150a, E150c, E150d%29 if they are used at the maximum levels reported by industry. By-products The scientists on the Panel also looked at other constituents resulting from the production process, namely 2-acetyl-4-tetrahydroxibutylimidazole %28THI%29 present in E150c, and 4-methylimidazole %284-MEI%29 present in E150c and E150d, for which EU specifications already foresee sufficient protective maximum levels for their presence in the colours. However, the Panel considered it would be prudent to keep their levels in caramel colours as low as technologically feasible, recommending further research to reduce the formation of of these by-products during the production of caramel colours. Council Directive 89/107/EEC %5B4%5D states that all food additives must be kept under continuous observation and must be re-evaluated whenever necessary in the light of changing conditions of use and new scientific information. CSPI says caramel colouring of colas is carcinogenic %5B5%5D According to CSPI the artificial caramel colours in colas and some other products is made by Reacting sugars with ammonia and sulfites under high pressure and temperatures result in the formation of 2-methylimidazole and 4 methylimidazole %28MEI%29, which cause lung, liver, or thyroid cancer or leukemia in laboratory mice or rats. Some opinions say these diseases were caused by high doses. The beverage industry says that 2-MEI and 4-MEI are everywhere and see no reason to avoid the use of such caramel colours. If its everywhere it is time to start to get out of food chain. The consumer can set a sign avoiding to drink brown cola. %5B1%5D EFSA reviews safety of caramel colours. 08.03.2011. http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/press/news/ans110308.htm %5B2%5D Commission Directive 2008/128/CE laying down specific purity criteria concerning colours for use in foodstuffs. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2009:006:0020... [3] Caramel Colours: Prepared at the 55th JECFA %282000%29 and published in FNP 52 Add 8 %282000%29, superseding specifications prepared at the 31st JECFA %281987 http://www.fao.org/ag/agn/jecfa-additives/specs/Monograph1/Additive-102.pdf [4] Council Directive 89/107/EEC of 21 December 1988 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States concerning food additives authorized for use in foodstuffs intended for human consumption [5] FDA Urged to Prohibit Carcinogenic %27Caramel Coloring%27. CSPI Says Artificial Caramel Coloring is Quite Different from Real Caramel. 16.02.2011. http://www.cspinet.org/new/201102161.html

[5]

According to CSPI the artificial caramel colours in colas and some other products is made by Reacting sugars with ammonia and sulfites under high pressure and temperatures result in the formation of 2-methylimidazole and 4 methylimidazole (MEI), which cause lung, liver, or thyroid cancer or leukemia in laboratory mice or rats. Some opinions say these diseases were caused by high doses. The beverage industry says that 2-MEI and 4-MEI are everywhere and see no reason to avoid the use of such caramel colours. If its everywhere it is time to start to get out of food chain. The consumer can set a sign avoiding to drink brown cola.

[1] EFSA reviews safety of caramel colours. 08.03.2011.

http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/press/news/ans110308.htm

[2] Commission Directive 2008/128/CE laying down specific purity criteria concerning colours for use in foodstuffs.

http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2009:006:0020:0063:EN:PDF

[3] Caramel Colours: Prepared at the 55th JECFA (2000) and published in FNP 52 Add 8 (2000), superseding specifications prepared at the 31st JECFA (1987

http://www.fao.org/ag/agn/jecfa-additives/specs/Monograph1/Additive-102.pdf

[4] Council Directive 89/107/EEC of 21 December 1988 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States concerning food additives authorized for use in foodstuffs intended for human consumption.

http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31989L0107:EN:HTML

[5] FDA Urged to Prohibit Carcinogenic "Caramel Coloring". CSPI Says Artificial Caramel Coloring is Quite Different from Real Caramel. 16.02.2011.

http://www.cspinet.org/new/201102161.html

17.04.2011: Salmonella reduction in poultry production at the primary production level [1]

Vandeplas et al.2010 describe preventive strategies to reduce the incidence of Salmonella colonization in broiler chickens at the farm level and additional preventive hygienic measures, such as feed and drinking water acidification with organic acids and immune strategies based on passive and active immunity, modification of the bird's diet to reduce a bird's susceptibility to Salmonella infection, in ovo feeding to accelerate small intestine development and enhances epithelial cell function. Feed additives such as antibiotics, prebiotics, probiotics, and synbiotics, the use of chlorate products and bacteriophages also being
studied to reduce enteropathogens I broiler.

Mulder 1997 stresses that safe poultry meat production begins with the live birds. Mulder calls therefore, for measures focused on the live bird an such critical control point approach of the HACCP concept should be considered. The capability of microorganisms to colonise the gastrointestinal tract is to be included use of vaccines, antimicrobials and competitive exclusion microfloras as well as the implementation of new processing technology should be encouraged. [2]

Comparative risk assessment applied to pig slaughtering in Europe [3]

Fosse J, Seegers H, Magras present a calculation of the incidence and severity of human cases due to pork consumption in Europe together with the ratio of non-control (incidence of human cases divided by the prevalence of hazards on pork).

Using these data highest incidence rates were determined for Salmonella enterica, Yersinia enterocolitica and Campylobacter spp. The highest severity scores were calculated for Listeria monocytogenes, Clostridium botulinum and Mycobacterium spp. The main high risk hazards presenting high non-control ratios were Y. enterocolitica, S. enterica and Campylobacter spp.. The authors stress that these risks cannot be detected by macroscopic examination of carcasses during meat inspection at slaughterhouse, which is based on an ante mortem clinical examination and a macroscopic post mortem examination of the carcass, including incision or palpation of lymph nodes and organs. New means of hazard control, such as presented here may improve the inspection at slaughterhouse.

Awareness of cross-contamination is of greater importance than undercooking

17.04.2011: Salmonella reduction in poultry production at the primary production level %5B1%5D Vandeplas et al.2010 describe preventive strategies to reduce the incidence of Salmonella colonization in broiler chickens at the farm level and additional preventive hygienic measures, such as feed and drinking water acidification with organic acids and immune strategies based on passive and active immunity, modification of the bird%27s diet to reduce a bird%27s susceptibility to Salmonella infection, in ovo feeding to accelerate small intestine development and enhances epithelial cell function. Feed additives such as antibiotics, prebiotics, probiotics, and synbiotics, the use of chlorate products and bacteriophages also being studied to reduce enteropathogens I broiler. Mulder 1997 stresses that safe poultry meat production begins with the live birds. Mulder calls therefore, for measures focused on the live bird an such critical control point approach of the HACCP concept should be considered. The capability of microorganisms to colonise the gastrointestinal tract is to be included use of vaccines, antimicrobials and competitive exclusion microfloras as well as the implementation of new processing technology should be encouraged.%5B2%5D Comparative risk assessment applied to pig slaughtering in Europe %5B3%5D Fosse J, Seegers H, Magras present a calculation of the incidence and severity of human cases due to pork consumption in Europe together with the ratio of non-control %28incidence of human cases divided by the prevalence of hazards on pork%29. Using these data highest incidence rates were determined for Salmonella enterica, Yersinia enterocolitica and Campylobacter spp. The highest severity scores were calculated for Listeria monocytogenes, Clostridium botulinum and Mycobacterium spp. The main high risk hazards presenting high non-control ratios were Y. enterocolitica, S. enterica and Campylobacter spp.. The authors stress that these risks cannot be detected by macroscopic examination of carcasses during meat inspection at slaughterhouse, which is based on an ante mortem clinical examination and a macroscopic post mortem examination of the carcass, including incision or palpation of lymph nodes and organs. New means of hazard control, such as presented here may improve the inspection at slaughterhouse. Awareness of cross-contamination is of greater importance than undercooking %5B4%5D Luber 2009 assessed epidemiological studies of Salmonella and Campylobacter infections from poultry meat and eggs Efforts to reduce the contamination of poultry meat or eggs faces the production. Information of the consumer regarding food preparation behaviour is another risk management tool, using messages such as %27cook poultry meat and eggs thoroughly%27 or %27wash your hands%27 to tackle cross-contamination events and undercooking. Reviewing available studies the authors concluded that cross-contamination due to the use of the same cutting board for chicken meat and salad without intermediate cleaning or spreading of pathogens via the kitchen environment seem to be of greater importance than the risk associated with undercooking of poultry meat or eggs. %5B1%5D Vandeplas S, Dubois Dauphin R, Beckers Y, Thonart P, Th%C3%A9wis A: Salmonella in chicken: current and developing strategies to reduce contamination at farm level. J Food Prot. 2010 Apr;73%284%29:774-85. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20377971 %5B2%5D Mulder RW: Safe poultry meat production in the next century. Acta Vet Hung. 1997;45%283%29:307-15. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9276991 %5B3%5D Fosse J, Seegers H, Magras C: Foodborne zoonoses due to meat: a quantitative approach for a comparative risk assessment applied to pig slaughtering in Europe. Vet Res. 2008 Jan-Feb;39%281%29:1. Doi: 10.1051/vetres:2007039 http://www.vetres.org/articles/vetres/pdf/2008/01/v07149.pdf %5B4%5D Luber P: Cross-contamination versus undercooking of poultry meat or eggs - which risks need to be managed first? Int J Food Microbiol. 2009 Aug 31;134%281-2%29:21-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19272666

[4]

Luber 2009 assessed epidemiological studies of Salmonella and Campylobacter infections from poultry meat and eggs

Efforts to reduce the contamination of poultry meat or eggs faces the production. Information of the consumer regarding food preparation behaviour is another risk management tool, using messages such as 'cook poultry meat and eggs thoroughly' or 'wash your hands' to tackle cross-contamination events and undercooking.

Reviewing available studies the authors concluded that cross-contamination due to the use of the same cutting board for chicken meat and salad without intermediate cleaning or spreading of pathogens via the kitchen environment seem to be of greater importance than the risk associated with undercooking of poultry meat or eggs.

[1] Vandeplas S, Dubois Dauphin R, Beckers Y, Thonart P, Théwis A: Salmonella in chicken: current and developing strategies to reduce contamination at farm level. J Food Prot. 2010 Apr;73(4):774-85.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20377971

[2] Mulder RW: Safe poultry meat production in the next century. Acta Vet Hung. 1997;45(3):307-15.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9276991

[3] Fosse J, Seegers H, Magras C: Foodborne zoonoses due to meat: a quantitative approach for a comparative risk assessment applied to pig slaughtering in Europe. Vet Res. 2008 Jan-Feb;39(1):1. Doi: 10.1051/vetres:2007039

http://www.vetres.org/articles/vetres/pdf/2008/01/v07149.pdf

[4] Luber P: Cross-contamination versus undercooking of poultry meat or eggs - which risks need to be managed first? Int J Food Microbiol. 2009 Aug 31;134(1-2):21-8.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19272666

17.04.2011: Multidrug-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteria in US meat and poultry

[1]

Price et al. 2011 report that 47 per cent of the meat and poultry samples of US grocery stores are contaminated with of Staphylococcus aureus, of which 52 percent are drug-resistant strains. The authors stress that antimicrobials are used extensively in food animal production, where they are often applied subtherapeutically for growth promotion and routine disease prevention.

The National Antimicrobial Resistance Monitoring System (NARMS) routinely surveys retail meat and poultry, comprising Campylobacter species, Salmonella species, Enterococcus species, and Escherichia coli, however, Staphylococcus aureus in animal food is not include in this monitoring system. [2]

The authors, based on DNA testing, suggest that the food animals themselves were the major source of contamination. Antimicrobials are used extensively in food animal production, being often applied subtherapeutically for growth promotion and routine disease prevention. Staphylococcus are killed with proper cooking, however, present a risk to consumers during food handling, cross contamination or undercooked meat.

The emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in the food chain became a serious problem for human medicine and Stahphylococcus aureus should be included in monitoring system.

[1] Waters AE, Contente-Cuomo T, Buchhagen J, Liu CM, Watson L, Pearce K, Foster J, Bowers J, Driebe E, Engelthaler DM, Keim PS, Price LB: Multidrug-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus in US Meat and Poultry. Clinical Infectious Diseases. (2011) cir181 first published online April 15, 2011 doi:10.1093/cid/cir181

http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2011/04/14/cid.cir181.full

[2] NARMS Retail Meat Annual Complete Report, 2008

http://www.fda.gov/downloads/AnimalVeterinary/SafetyHealth/AntimicrobialResistance/NationalAntimicrobialResistanceMonitoringSystem/UCM237111.pdf

16.04.2011: Radionuclides in the food chain [1]

The exposure may result from direct inhalation of contaminated air or ingestion of contaminated water, or from a less direct pathway, the ingestion of contaminated food products. The the contamination of the milk of the cow is a typical example to the incorporation of radionuclides in the food chain resulting of the ingestion of contaminated pasture, the so called the pasture-cow-milk exposure route.

Mushrooms from Bavaria, Germany, are still contaminated with radiating Caesium from the disaster of Chernobyl. German wild boars even after 25 years after Chernobil disaster are excluded from food market because they exceed the German limit on 600 Becquerel/Kg in meat. Wild boars like mushrooms which are highly contaminated by radionuclides. [2]

The contamination of mushrooms with radionuclides depends on the type of mushroom and on the type of soil they grow on. The Cs-137 nuclides can highly be absorbed from forest soil where it is free available for plant roots. In agricultural areas the radionuclides are tightly bound to soil particles and their absorption is diminished. Sweet chestnuts and birch bolete are plant products with highest contamination. [3]

Schwaiger et al. 2004 report that in 2002, the ingestion dose of radionuclides from the accident of Chernobyle in Austria amounts to 2.24 microSv (adult), or 0.88 microSv (5-year infant) respectively, which is less than 0.5% of the ingestion dose of the first year and amounts to 0.7% of the ingestion dose from natural radionuclides. [4]

Soil type important for prediction of food-chain contamination [5]

According to Bell and Shaw 2005 initial studies and advices of the UK Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, following the Chernobyl accident, were based on agricultural soils, with high clay and low organic matter contents where the radioiodine decayed and the radiocaesium became immobilised by attachment to clay particles. Other soils, low in clay and high in organic matter, such as the wet and acidic uplands, however favour mobility and bioavailability of the radionuclides. Radiocaesium entered the food chain. Sale of sheep had to be banned over areas of upland. Bans will continue in some cases for some years to come.

The authors stress the importance of a fundamental understanding of biogeochemical pathways in different ecosystems to predict the impact of radionuclides fall-out.

Root uptake of radionuclides in organic soils [6]

Rigol, Vidal and Rauret 2002 report that high 137CS soil-to-plant transfer persists in organic soils over years, which may be related to the low solid-liquid distribution coefficient resulting of the low clay content and high NH4+ concentration in the soil solution, and the low K+ availability, which enhances root uptake.

Chiang et al. 2010 studied the sorption of Caesium and Strontium of soils around nuclear facilities in Taiwan. The amounts of pyrophosphate extractable Fe (Fe(p)) clay minerals and increased temperatures were correlated significantly with the Cs and Sr sorption capacities. The authors concluded that short-range ordered sesquioxides especially Al- and Fe-oxides complexed with organics influence Cs and Sr sorption. [7]

Chernobyl contamination data [8]

Leoniak et al. 2006 report that the air at Chernobyl had been contaminated with about 5300 PBq radionuclide activity, including 1760 PBq (131)I and 85 PBq (137)Cs. The contaminated areas presented 37 kBq/m(2)of (137)Cs.

The highest mean radiation dose per year for the whole body in the first year after the accident was in Poland 932 microSv, in Bulgaria 760 microSv, in Austria 670 microSv and Greece 590 microSv), The lowest radiation dose was observed in Portugal (1.8 microSv) and Spain (4.2 microSv). Actual radiation dose in Poland is close to the limited dose permitted of 1 mSv/year.

Body radiation burden of the population of Sweden [9]

Rääf and colleagues 2006 present data of human body burden resulting from fallout from nuclear weapons tests (only (137)Cs) and Chernobyl debris (both (134)Cs and (137)Cs)The authors found that the committed effective dose over a 70 y period for the urban Swedish population is 20-30 microSv/kBq m(-2), reindeer herders 700 microSv/kBq m(-2), hunters in the counties dominated by forest vegetation 100 microSv/kBq m(-2), rural non-farming populations living in sub-arctic areas 40-150 microSv/kBq m(-2), and farmers 50 microSv/kBq m(-2).

Eating behaviour of population of the contaminated areas

According to Rääf eating behaviour is an important pathway of the fall-out radioniclides to man. Contamination takes place by ingesting foodstuffs of the region. This can be reduced by meticulously following the recommendations of the authorities.

[1] Dinis ML, Fiúza A:Models for the transfer of radionuclides in the food chain. IAEA-CN-145/205P

http://curem.iaea.org/envrad2007/content/rsrc/Envrad2007/205P/205P-Dinis-S1formatted.pdf

[2] Jäger messen Wildbret auf Cäsium-Belastung. BR. 03.01.2011.

http://www.br-online.de/bayern1/mittags-in-mainfranken/regionalnews-fran...

[3] Tschernobyl ist nicht passé. BR Online. 03.09.2010

http://www.br-online.de/ratgeber/ernaehrung/pilze-sammeln-DID1195676901904970/pilze-strahlung-pilze-schwammerl-ID67119567686849892.xml

[4] Schwaiger M, Mueck K, Benesch T, Feichtinger J, Hrnecek E, Lovranich E.: Investigation of food contamination since the Chernobyl fallout in Austria. Appl Radiat Isot. 2004 Aug-Sep;61(2-3):357-60.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15177371

[5] Bell JN, Shaw G: Ecological lessons from the Chernobyl accident. Environ Int. 2005 Aug;31(6):771-7.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16005971

[6] Rigol A, Vidal M, Rauret G: An overview of the effect of organic matter on soil-radiocaesium interaction: implications in root uptake. J Environ Radioact. 2002;58(2-3):191-216.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11814166

[7] Chiang PN, Wang MK, Huang PM, Wang JJ, Chiu CY: Cesium and strontium sorption by selected tropical and subtropical soils around nuclear facilities. J Environ Radioact. 2010 Jun;101(6):472-81

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19038481

[8] Leoniak M, Zonenberg A, Zarzycki W: The radiological situation before and after Chernobyl disaster. Endokrynol Pol. 2006 Jan-Feb;57(1):45-52.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16575762

[9] Rääf CL, Hubbard L, Falk R, Agren G, Vesanen R: Transfer of 137Cs from Chernobyl debris and nuclear weapons fallout to different Swedish population groups. Sci Total Environ. 2006 Aug 15;367(1):324-40.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16504249

13.04.2011: Japan prohibits the sell of shiitake-mushrooms

13.04.2011: Japan prohibits the sell of shiitake-mushrooms In the region of Fukushima shiitake-mushrooms with high radiation were found. A total of 16 cities and towns are compromised. The ban was imposed on mushrooms cultivated outdoors. Mushrooms grown in greenhouses are safe and may be sold, according to Kyodo News. The local department of health reports a 1,55 times of the maximum permitted content of Iodine 131 and 1,78 times for Caesium in shiitake-mushrooms. On April 1, shiitake mushrooms from the city Iwaki had a level of radioactive cesium of 890 becquerels per kilogram against the limit of 500 becquerels, reports Kyodo News. Mushrooms from Bavaria, Germany, are still contaminated with radiating Caesium from the disaster of Chernobyl. %5B1%5D Gov%27t bans shipments of some shiitake mushrooms near nuclear plant. Kyodo News. 13.04.2011. http://english.kyodonews.jp/news/2011/04/85133.html

[1]

In the region of Fukushima shiitake-mushrooms with high radiation were found. A total of 16 cities and towns are compromised. The ban was imposed on mushrooms cultivated outdoors. Mushrooms grown in greenhouses are safe and may be sold, according to Kyodo News. The local department of health reports a 1,55 times of the maximum permitted content of Iodine 131 and 1,78 times for Caesium in shiitake-mushrooms. On April 1, shiitake mushrooms from the city Iwaki had a level of radioactive cesium of 890 becquerels per kilogram against the limit of 500 becquerels, reports Kyodo News.

Mushrooms from Bavaria, Germany, are still contaminated with radiating Caesium from the disaster of Chernobyl.

[1] Gov't bans shipments of some shiitake mushrooms near nuclear plant. Kyodo News. 13.04.2011.

12.04.2011: Methylmercury from fish does not increase heart disease

12.04.2011: Methylmercury from fish does not increase heart disease %5B1%5D Methylmercury exposure from fish ingestion has been linked to increase cardiovascular disease risk. The effects, if any, of methylmercury exposure on CVD risk may be partially offset by beneficial effects of fish consumption and by selenium intake. Fish intake has been inversely associated with the risk for CHD, especially fatal CHD, and ischemic stroke. Mozaffarian et al.2011 present a study which included a total of 173.229 persons for whom toenail clippings had been analysed and 3427 incident cases of CVD were reported. as CHD and ischemic stroke. In the case patients, median toenail mercury concentrations were 0.23 %CE%BCg/g vs 0.25 %CE%BCg/g in the control participants. The risk for CVD was not higher in participants with higher mercury exposures. The authors suggest that higher mercury levels were related to higher eating of fish and resulting increase of beneficial selenium counterbalancing the effect of mercury. The authors concluded that mercury exposure from fish consume does not cause coronary heart disease, stroke, or total cardiovascular disease in U.S. Adults. %5B1%5D Mozaffarian D, Shi P, Morris JS, Spiegelman D, Grandjean P, Siscovick DS, Willett WC, Rimm EB: Mercury exposure and risk of cardiovascular disease in two U.S. Cohorts. N Engl J Med. 2011 Mar 24;364%2812%29:1116-25. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21428767

[1]

Methylmercury exposure from fish ingestion has been linked to increase cardiovascular disease risk. The effects, if any, of methylmercury exposure on CVD risk may be partially offset by beneficial effects of fish consumption and by selenium intake. Fish intake has been inversely associated with the risk for CHD, especially fatal CHD, and ischemic stroke.

Mozaffarian et al.2011 present a study which included a total of 173.229 persons for whom toenail clippings had been analysed and 3427 incident cases of CVD were reported. as CHD and ischemic stroke. In the case patients, median toenail mercury concentrations were 0.23 μg/g vs 0.25 μg/g in the control participants. The risk for CVD was not higher in participants with higher mercury exposures. The authors suggest that higher mercury levels were related to higher eating of fish and resulting increase of beneficial selenium counterbalancing the effect of mercury.

The authors concluded that mercury exposure from fish consume does not cause coronary heart disease, stroke, or total cardiovascular disease in U.S. Adults.

[1] Mozaffarian D, Shi P, Morris JS, Spiegelman D, Grandjean P, Siscovick DS, Willett WC, Rimm EB: Mercury exposure and risk of cardiovascular disease in two U.S. Cohorts. N Engl J Med. 2011 Mar 24;364(12):1116-25.

10.04.2011: TPL2 gene regulates obesity-associated inflammation and insulin resistance [1]

According to Perfield et al.2011 tumor progression locus 2 (TPL2), a kinase that integrates signals from Toll receptors, cytokine receptors, and inhibitor of κ-B kinase-β mediates obesity-associated inflammation and insulin resistance.

Mice fed with a low-fat diet or a high-fat diet to investigate the effect of TPL2 deletion on obesity, inflammation, and insulin sensitivity. The authors found that TPL2 deletion does not alter body weight gain or adipose depot weight, but improves insulin sensitivity with enhanced glucose uptake in skeletal muscle and increased suppression of hepatic glucose output, diminished immune cell infiltration reduced inflammation in obese TPL2-suppressed mice. The author concluded that TPL2 is a target which may improve the metabolic state associated with obesity.

Blueberries reduce insulin resistance, adipocyte death and the resulting inflammation [2]

Supplementation of a high-fat diet with whole blueberry powder of Vaccinium ashei and Vaccinium corymbosum was found by DeFuria et al. 2009 to protects against adipose tissue inflammation and insulin resistance but did not alter energy intake, metabolic rate, body weight, or adiposity. The authors report that the shift toward global upregulation of inflammatory genes, increased M1-polarized ATMPhi (CD11c+), and increased oxidative stress was attenuated or nonexistent in mice fed with blueberries which were also protected from insulin resistance and hyperglycemia adipocyte death. These effects may result from anthocyanins of blueberries which alter mitogen-activated protein kinase and nuclear factor-kappaB stress signaling pathways.

Oils reducing belly fat [3]

According to Perfield 2011 abnormally high belly fat or abdominal adiposity has been linked to a range of health problems, including insulin resistance, diabetes, cardiovascular disease and other obesity-associated health disorders. The author found that oil of the seeds of the Sterculia foetida tree contains sterculic oil curbs a human enzyme associated with insulin resistance. Belly fat is a key to reducing the incidence of serious disease, and this oil could have a future as a nutritional supplement. Mice with high amount of abdominal fat, which were fed with sterculic oil, presented decreased liver fat and an improved glucose tolerance. The dose was comparable to providing 3 grams of sterculic oil to a 250 pound human.

Malvalic acid and sterculic acid are cyclopropene fatty acids.

The structure of sterculic acid was proposed by Nunn as C19H34O2, by the method of urea complexes and suggested its structure as omega-(2n-octylcycloprop-1-enyl)-octanoic acid (I). [4]

Sterculic acid is present in sterculia oils and at low levels in kapok seed oil (~12%), cottonseed oil (~1%) and in the seeds of the tree Sterculia foetida (~65-78%). These acids are highly reactive and are destroyed during refining and hydrogenation of the oils. [5]

Saflor oil improving glycemia, inflammation, and blood lipids [6]

Asp et al. 2011 reported that a daily dose of 8g of safflower oil for 16 weeks may improve glycemia, inflammation, and blood lipids in obese postmenopausal women who have Type 2 diabetes. No such effects were noted with conjugated linoleic acid.

Perilipin role in obesity and thermogenesis [7]

Miyoshi et Al. 2010 describe the function of perilipin A in adipocyte lipid droplets which is essential for lipid storage and lipolysis. Overexpression of perilipin diminished adipose tissue, elevates basal lipolysis, reduces catecholamine-stimulated lipolysis, and increased insulin resistance, lower body weight, fat mass, and adipocyte size were also attained. The expression of oxidative genes was increased and lipogenic genes decreased in brown adipose tissue of transgenic mice.

Sawada and colleagues 2010 report that FSP27 has been shown to control gene expression of fat metabolic regulators. Overexpression of Perilipin A in 3T3-L1 adipocytes also reduced FSP27 expression and diminished lipid droplet size. The authors concluded that overexpression of Perilipin A in white adipocytes reduces lipid droplet size by decreasing FSP27 expression and thereby inducing a brown adipose tissue-like phenotype. The authors suggest to modulation the lipid droplet proteins in white adipocytes as a treatment of obesity and its related disorders. [8]

Souza et al. 2007 reports that protein kinase A-mediated perilipin phosphorylation is essential for norepinephrine-dependent lipolysis and thermogenesis in brown adipose tissue . The authors report that in perilipin knockout mice an increased basal lipolysis attributable to the absence of perilipin causes a temperature increase of approximately 3.0 degrees C, suggesting that. one or more norepinephrine-dependent mechanism of perilipin phosphorylation regulates the interscapular brown adipose tissue thermal response. [9]

[1] Perfield JW 2nd, Lee Y, Shulman GI, Samuel VT, Jurczak MJ, Chang E, Xie C, Tsichlis PN, Obin MS, Greenberg AS: Tumor Progression Locus 2 (TPL2) Regulates Obesity-Associated Inflammation and Insulin Resistance. Diabetes. 2011 Apr;60(4):1168-76.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21346175

[2] DeFuria J, Bennett G, Strissel KJ, Perfield JW 2nd, Milbury PE, Greenberg AS, Obin MS: Dietary blueberry attenuates whole-body insulin resistance in high fat-fed mice by reducing adipocyte death and its inflammatory sequelae. J Nutr. 2009 Aug;139(8):1510-6.

http://jn.nutrition.org/content/139/8/1510.long

[3] Plant oil may hold key to reducing obesity-related medical issues, says James Perfield of the University of Missouri-Columbia. Eurek Alert 23.03.2011 [3]

http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2011-03/uom-pom032311.php

[4] Verma JP, Bhola Nath, Aggarwal JS: Structure of Sterculic Acid. Nature 175, 84 - 85 (08 January 1955); doi:10.1038/175084a0

http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v175/n4445/abs/175084a0.html

[5] Carbocyclic fatty acids in plants: Biochemical and molecular genetic characterization of cyclopropane fatty acid synthesis of Sterculia foetida. 7172–7177 PNAS May 14, 2002 vol. 99 no. 10

http://www.pnas.org/content/99/10/7172.full.pdf

[6] Asp ML, Collene AL, Norris LE, Cole RM, Stout MB, Tang SY, Hsu JC, Belury MA: Time-dependent effects of safflower oil to improve glycemia, inflammation and blood lipids in obese, post-menopausal women with type 2 diabetes: A randomized, double-masked, crossover study. Clin Nutr. 2011 Feb 2.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21295383

[7] Miyoshi H, Souza SC, Endo M, Sawada T, Perfield JW 2nd, Shimizu C, Stancheva Z, Nagai S, Strissel KJ, Yoshioka N, Obin MS, Koike T, Greenberg AS: Perilipin overexpression in mice protects against diet-induced obesity .J Lipid Res. 2010 May;51(5):975-82.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19797618

[8] Sawada T, Miyoshi H, Shimada K, Suzuki A, Okamatsu-Ogura Y, Perfield JW 2nd, Kondo T, Nagai S, Shimizu C, Yoshioka N, Greenberg AS, Kimura K, Koike T: Perilipin overexpression in white adipose tissue induces a brown fat-like phenotype. PLoS One. 2010 Nov 16;5(11):e14006.

http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0014006

[9] Souza SC, Christoffolete MA, Ribeiro MO, Miyoshi H, Strissel KJ, Stancheva ZS, Rogers NH, D'Eon TM, Perfield JW 2nd, Imachi H, Obin MS, Bianco AC, Greenberg AS: Perilipin regulates the thermogenic actions of norepinephrine in brown adipose tissue. J Lipid Res. 2007 Jun;48(6):1273-9.

http://www.jlr.org/content/48/6/1273.long

07.04.2011: Bisphenol A and phthalates in canned or packaged food

07.04.2011: Bisphenol A and phthalates in canned or packaged food %5B1%5D Rudel et al. 2011 found that removing bisphenol A %28BPA%29 and DEHP %28bis%282-ethylhexyl%29phthalate%29 from food packaging will significantly decrease exposure for adults and children. Bisphenol A is widely used in the manufacture of polycarbonate and other plastic products and epoxy resin-based food can liners The authors measured urinary BPA and phthalate metabolites after diet avoiding canned foods and foods in plastic packaging, compared with usual diet. The authors report that urine levels of BPA and DEHP metabolites decreased significantly during a diet free of canned food and free of plastic packed foods. The authors call for the phase out of the use of bisphenol A and phthalate because of its implication in endocrine disruption. %5B1%5D Rudel RA, Gray JM, Engel CL, Rawsthorne TW, Dodson RE, Ackerman JM, et al. 2011. Food Packaging and Bisphenol A and Bis%282-Ethylhexyl%29 Phthalate Exposure: Findings from a Dietary Intervention. Environ Health Perspect. 2011 Mar 30. Doi:10.1289/ehp.1003170 http://ehp03.niehs.nih.gov/article/info:doi/10.1289/ehp.1003170

[1]

Rudel et al. 2011 found that removing bisphenol A (BPA) and DEHP (bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate) from food packaging will significantly decrease exposure for adults and children. Bisphenol A is widely used in the manufacture of polycarbonate and other plastic products and epoxy resin-based food can liners.

The authors measured urinary BPA and phthalate metabolites after diet avoiding canned foods and foods in plastic packaging, compared with usual diet. The authors report that urine levels of BPA and DEHP metabolites decreased significantly during a diet free of canned food and free of plastic packed foods. The authors call for the phase out of the use of bisphenol A and phthalate because of its implication in endocrine disruption.

[1] Rudel RA, Gray JM, Engel CL, Rawsthorne TW, Dodson RE, Ackerman JM, et al. 2011. Food Packaging and Bisphenol A and Bis(2-Ethylhexyl) Phthalate Exposure: Findings from a Dietary Intervention. Environ Health Perspect. 2011 Mar 30. Doi:10.1289/ehp.1003170

http://ehp03.niehs.nih.gov/article/info:doi/10.1289/ehp.1003170

06.04.2011: High-risk clones disseminating antibiotic resistance [1]

Woodford et al. 2011 report that many bacterial species have a clonal structure which may be widespread. Some global clones are multiresistant and have disseminated from single foci, such as the KPC carbapenemase-positive Klebsiella pneumoniae ST258 from Greece to northwest Europe.

The global ST131 Escherichia coli clone most often has CTX-M-15 extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL). However there are also strains which do not depend on ESBLs or have different ESBL types. The authors describe clonal diversity Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii and Pseudomonas aeruginosa which presents the serotype O12/Burst Group 4 cluster presenting resistances variety from PSE-1 to VIM-1 beta-lactamases. These high-risk clones are entangled in spread of resistance presenting ability to accumulate and switch resistance.

Carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae include strains of metallo-beta-lactamases (IMP, NDM or VIM) and non-metallo (KPC and OXA-48) enzymes, extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) or AmpC enzyme with porin loss. Most strains with NDM-1 carbapenemase also have 16S rRNA methylases, conferring complete aminoglycoside resistance. Livermore et al. 2011 evaluated the activity of chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin, colistin, fosfomycin, minocycline, nitrofurantoin, temocillin and tigecycline against carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae isolates. Acording to the authors the most important genes encoding carbapenem-destroying enzymes are KPCin the US and NDM, which is rapidly spreading internationally from India and Pakistan. [2]

Livermore reports that NLX104 plus ceftazidime is particularly effective against Klebsiella pneumoniae strains carrying K. pneumoniae carbapenem (KPC) resistance genes. Combining NXL104 with the antibiotic aztreonam it becomes effective against a wide range of carbapenemase-producing strains, including those carrying the Verona imipenemase (VIM) and the recently identified New Delhi metallo-beta- lactamase (NDM). [3] [4]

Metallo-beta-lactamases [5]

According to Zhao and Hu 2011 metallo-beta-lactamases (MBLs) hydrolyze most beta-lactams including the carbapenems. VIMs families include 27 variants of metallo-beta lactamases found in Gram-negative bacilli found in more than 40 countries/regions. The authors report further that most of the bla (VIM)s are situated on a class 1 integron, which is a genetic platform able to acquire and express gene cassettes. The fact that integrons are positioned in transposons which are situated on plasmids, making them highly mobile.

Reduction of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in municipal wastewater [6]

Diehl and LaPara studied the reduction of the quantity of antibiotic resistant bacteria in wastewater solids in anaerobic and aerobic digesters.

The authors used lab-scale digesters at 22 °C, 37 °C, 46 °C, and 55 °C. five genes encoding tetracycline resistance (tet(A), tet(L), tet(O), tet(W), and tet(X)) and the gene encoding the integrase (intI1) of class 1 integrons. A reduction of 99,9% of these genes were obtained with the anaerobic digester at 55 °C. Aerobic digesters did not reduce gene quantities. The authors stress that bacteria produce methane gas that can be used to heat the reactor, reducing thus the heating costs. They conclude that high temperature anaerobic digestion of wastewater solids may eliminate various antibiotic resistance genes. This technology together with reduced use of antibiotics in human and veterinary medicine and other uses, such as aquaculture may decrease the risk of antibiotic- resistant strains.

[1] Woodford N, Turton JF, Livermore DM: Multiresistant Gram-negative bacteria: the role of high-risk clones in the dissemination of antibiotic resistance. FEMS Microbiol Rev. 2011 Feb 9. doi: 10.1111/j.1574-6976.2011.00268.x.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21303394

[2] Livermore DM, Warner M, Mushtaq S, Doumith M, Zhang J, Woodford N: What remains against carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae? Evaluation of chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin, colistin, fosfomycin, minocycline, nitrofurantoin, temocillin and tigecycline. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2011 Mar 21.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21429716

[3] Livermore DM, Mushtaq S, Warner M, Zhang J, Maharjan S, Doumith M, Woodford N: Activities of NXL104 combinations with ceftazidime and aztreonam against carbapenemase-Producing Enterobacteriaceae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2011 Jan;55(1):390-4. Doi: 10.1128/AAC.00756-10

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21041502

[4] Endimiani A, Hujer KM, Hujer AM, Pulse ME, Weiss WJ, Bonomo RA: Evaluation of Ceftazidime and NXL104 in Two Murine Models of Infection Due to KPC-Producing Klebsiella pneumoniae. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 2010; 55 (1): 82 Doi: 10.1128/AAC.01198-10

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21041503

[5] Zhao WH, Hu ZQ: Epidemiology and genetics of VIM-type metallo-bet-lactamases in Gram-negative bacilli. Future Microbiol. 2011 Mar;6:317-33.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21449842

[6] Diehl DL, LaPara TM. Effect of Temperature on the Fate of Genes Encoding Tetracycline Resistance and the Integrase of Class 1 Integrons within Anaerobic and Aerobic Digesters Treating Municipal Wastewater Solids. Environmental Science & Technology, 2010; : 101109075851067 DOI: 10.1021/es102765a

http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es102765a

05.04.2011: Endosymbiosis of green algae with embryo of the spotted salamader [1]

Kerney et al 2011 describe the endosymbiosis of green algae within cells of embryos of salamander. Endosymbiosis is vary rare because of the immune reaction of the host cells which try to defeat any foreign cells which manage to get inside of their cells.

The green algae Oophilia amblystoma, living in cells of salamander embryos was described by Lambert Printz in 1927. Later on it was discovered that salamander embryos did not develop completely and quickly in absence of the green algae. According to the authors the alga can invade and grow within an egg's jelly. Once inside, it metabolizes the carbon dioxide produced by the embryo and provides it with oxygen as a result of photosynthesis. [2]

To improve the detection of the green algae cells the authors used fluorescent microscopy to turn chlorophyl of the algae visible together with a short string of nucleic acids that targets and binds to a ribosomal RNA molecule unique to Oophilia (18S rRNA)

Endosymbiosis [3]

The authors explain that symbiosis is a species-species interaction in which the organisms share space for extended periods of time. Symbioses can benefit one organism and harm the other (parasitism), benefit both (mutualism), or benefit one creature and leave the other unaffected (commensalism). Endosymbiosis is a special type of symbiosis, requiring one organism to live inside the cells of another. Endosymbiosis has special evolutionary significance, as it may have preceded the full integration of certain cell organelles, such as mitochondria and chloroplasts.

[1] Kerney R, Kim E, Hangarter RP, Heiss AA, Bishop CD, Hall BK: Intracellular invasion of green algae in a salamander host. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, v. 108 iss. 14 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1018259108

http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2011/03/29/1018259108

[2] Algae that live inside the cells of salamanders are the first known vertebrate endosymbionts. Indiana University April 04, 2011.

http://newsinfo.iu.edu/news/page/normal/17995.html

[3] Wernegreen JJ (2004) Endosymbiosis: Lessons in Conflict Resolution. PLoS Biol 2(3): e68. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020068

http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pbio.0020068

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April 2011 - OurFood-news