April 2009 - OurFood-news

30.04.2009: Improved sanitation of food manufacturer needed to avoid H1N1 infection

The swine influenza virus H1N1 spreads in USA. Nebrasca and Alabama reprt infections with H1N1. The WHO reports 236 confirmed cases worldwide, 97 cases in Mexiko, 26 in the EU. Pain reports 13 cases, Great Britain 8 Germany 3, Austria one, and Netherlands one case of swine influenza.



Improved sanitation of food manufacturer needed to avoid H1N1 infection. People working with food which are sneezing or coughing should see a doctor and be sent home. People returning from Mexico and USA should stay at home for 5 to 7 days. Fresh food is a possible vector of the swine influenza virus.



Improved sanitation of large food systems

HACCP programs place greater emphasis on record keeping and personal accountability, which, in turn, puts greater demand on systems and employees.

Manually operated, sanitation depend on the people which do not exclude human failures. An automated system is more reliable, because it follows a prescribed cleaning pattern. However, failure of automatic valves and dead ends in the system must always be considered by those who are in charge of the safety of the production.



Sanitation Performance Standards Compliance Guide [1]

The Sanitation Performance Standards issued by the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) establishes a flexible regulatory method based on HACCP philosophy. It defines rule on sanitation requirements for meat and poultry plants. The standards define the desired sanitation results, but not the specific means to achieve those results abolishing specific methods for cleaning equipment and utensils. The new standards remove obstacles to innovation, allowing innovative sanitation processing procedures. Past FSIS regulations and guidance, as well as recommendations from the 1999 Food Code and other technical sources, are included or cited.



Construction problems with stainless tubes, tanks and vessels [2]

Fit and finish troubles with equipment that make it difficult to clean. Smoothness of welds and open bearings may present problems in food plants.

The American Welding Society published a guideline regarding tubes, pipes stainless tanks. describing the welding requirements for tubing systems pipes and stainless steel tankls built to 3-A standards, but also apply to meat production:



- Specification for Welding of Austenitic Stainless Steel Tube and Pipe Systems in Sanitary (Hygienic) Applications (D18.1:1999) [3]

- AWS D18.3/D18.3M Specification for Welding of Tanks, Vessels, and Other Equipment in Sanitary (Hygienic) Applications. Document AWS D18.3/D18.3M [4]



Sanitizing chemicals ozone and chlorine

Ozone is making strides as a safe alternative and a powerful oxidant that destroys microbes, being nearly 3,000 times faster than chlorine. It is used as the primary agent of sanitation for more than 80 percent of the bottled water supplied to the U.S.



Aqueous ozone is used both to clean apples and its juice storage tanks. Salad makers uses aqueous ozone to disinfect vegetables and its associated equipment, replacing chlorine. Ozonated water is used to sanitize work areas and processing equipment used at the meat industry.

Ozone rapidly decomposes into oxygen. Chlorine rinses uses 100 ppm chlorine. The same effect is attained with water containing 1 ppm ozone.



[1] FSIS: Sanitation Performance Standards Compliance Guide

http://www.fsis.usda.gov/OPPDE/rdad/frpubs/sanitationguide.htm



[2] Henon, Barbara K.; Brond Angel: Latest Developments in Welding Specifications for Sanitary Process Piping. Tubenet.org, The Site for Tube and Pipe Industries.

http://www.tubenet.org.uk/technical/arctech3_m.html



[3] AWS D18.1Specification for Welding of Austenitic Stainless Steel Tube and Pipe Systems in Sanitary (Hygienic) Applications AWS d18.1-1999-all-color

http://webstore.ansi.org/RecordDetail.aspx?sku=AWS+d18.1-1999-all-color



[4] AWS D18.3/D18.3M Specification for Welding of Tanks, Vessels, and Other Equipment in Sanitary (Hygienic) Applications. Document AWS D18.3/D18.3M

http://engineers.ihs.com/document/abstract/XNYMIBAAAAAAAAAA



30.04.2009: Reassortment or point mutations of H9N2 influenza virus is predicted to become a new pandemic, says University of Maryland researcher [1] [2]

The avian N9N2 is endemic and presents occasional transmission to humans and pigs.

Perez and colleagues 2009 in an article in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America report how the current swine influenza strain formed. The authors write that avian, swine, and human-like viruses combined in a pig to make the new virus. It then mutated to be able to spread by human respiratory.

The infection of avian influenza viruses from birds to humans may cause a serious disease, however, the spread from human to human is rare.



A pig can host both avian and human-like viruses where they can combine and form hybrid avian-human viruses. These viruses can infect humans. The immune system is not prepared to fight them because the surface proteins are new. This type of virus can easily mutate to spread quickly and potentially cause a human pandemic.



The authors reverse genetics mutated the H9N2 influenza virus, creating a hybrid human-avian virus. The new hybrid had internal human flu genes and surface avian flu genes from the H9N2 virus. The combination avian and human influenza virus under laboratory conditions was similar to the origin of the swine flu virus H1N1 of the actual outbreak. Ferrets were infected with the virus created by the researchers.



When the genetic sequences of the mutant virus and original hybrid virus were compared, they found only two surface mutations responsible for supporting respiratory droplet transmission.  Only two mutations were necessary to make the hybrid H9N2 transmissible. A human pandemic of this virus is predictable. Perez suggests that the H1N1 swine flu virus mutated in a similar form as shown with the H9N2 in his research.



The two genetic mutations took place in the lab strain, one on the HA surface protein enabled respiratory transmission between mammals and the other mutation was the site where human antibodies would bind but is different from actual vaccine stocks. The H9N2 is therefore a new candidate for a pandemic.



The authors concluded that the reassortant virus expressing only the hemaglutinin HA and the neuraminidase (NA) of the ferret-adapted virus was able to account for the transmissibility. The currently circulating avian H9N2 viruses require little adaptation to turn pandemic. Aerosolized respiratory transmission may also be caused by others then by the current human H1, H2, and H3 influenza subtypes.



[1] University of Maryland - UM Newsdesk: Avian Flu Research Sheds Light on Swine Flu Outbreak. April 28, 2009

http://www.newsdesk.umd.edu/scitech/release.cfm?ArticleID=1878



[2] Sorrell, Erin M.; Wan, Hongquan; Araya, Yonas; Song, Haichen; Perez Daniel R.: Minimal molecular constraints for respiratory droplet transmission of an avian–human H9N2 influenza A virus. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science U S A. pnas.0900877106.

Published online 2009 April 17. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0900877106.

http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=19380727



29.04.2009: A Campaign calls to stop the use of processing aids during bread production [1]

Current legislation allows manufacturers to use substances known as processing aids during bread production without declaring so on the label. The „Real Bread Campaign“
says that these ingredients include enzymes such as xylanase, transglutaminase, hemicellulase, phospholipase and fungal alpha-amylase some of which are known allergens or may be produced using substances of animal or GM origin.



Enzymes being used in bread production

Bakery enzymes are used to extend the shelf-life of baked goods, maintain bread volume, crumb softness, crust crispiness and improves browning.



Such enzymes are:

      Amylases which convert starch to sugar and produce dextrins.

      Oxidases strengthen and bleach the dough.

      Proteases and hemicellulases reduce gluten elasticity.

      Hemicellulases improve gluten strength.



The Campaign stresses that the only essential ingredients of basic leavened bread are flour, water and yeast, to which a small amount of salt may be added, The campaign calls on bread producers to to stop the use of processing aids during bread production or include a declaration of any and all added enzymes and other processing aids used.



The EU regulation 1331/2008 demands that enzymes used as processing aids must be approved prior to their use. Approval was not required before December 2008. [2]



[1] Real Bread Campaign: Bread labelling transpoarency.

http://www.sustainweb.org/realbread/what_is_real_bread/



[2] Regulation (EC) No 1331/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 December 2008 establishing a common authorisation procedure for food additives, food enzymes and food flavourings.

http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2008:354:0001:0006:EN:PDF






29.04.2009: News Update - Swine influenza [1]

The CDC confirmed 64 cases of swine flue in the United States, confirmed cases have emerged in Canada, New Zealand, Scotland, Israel, Spain, and Mexico with 152 deaths. Outside Mexico only mild symptoms are reported. Germany reports one case in Bavaria and one not yet confirmed case in Hamburg.



Collecting specimen for H1N1 swine influenza testing

Nasopharyngeal swab as respiratory specimes, sera for cases or contacts of cases with confirmed swine influenza.

Specimens should be collected within the first 24-72 hours of onset of symptoms and no later than 5 days after onset of symptoms. The specimens should be kept refrigerated at 4ºC and sent on cold packs if they can be received by the laboratory within five days of the date collected. If samples cannot be received by the laboratory within five days, they should be frozen at -70 ºC or below and shipped on dry ice.



Laboratory testing

Throat smear taken by health officials are sent to a lab performing the tests:

1 - US Flu Rapid Antigen testing. This test is not specific. Its sensitivity is unknown. A negative result does not exclude a diagnosis of swine influenza A and should be submitted to PCR and subtyping.

2 - The CDC under the Emergency Use Authorization (EUA) procedure authorized diagnostic tests called “diagnostica reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) swine influenza panel” , the “rapid influenza antigen” and the” immunofluroscence”. All three can detect the new swine influenza virus, but they only identify probable cases because they cannot distinguish between seasonal influenza A and swine influenza, which is a subtype of A.

3 - The RT-PCR can conclusively confirm a case of swine influenza.

4 - Culture of the virus in cell cultures and chicken eggs. This takes much time.

Active infection with swine influenza can only be confirmed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays, including subtyping and further characterization by other special PCR assays



Laboratory safety precautions

Rapid antigen testing or PCR) can be performed under BSL-2 conditions. All sample manipulations should be done inside a biosafety cabinet. (BSC). Viral isolation on clinical specimens from patients who are suspected cases of swine influenza A (H1N1) virus infection should be performed in a BSL2 laboratory with BSL3 practices (enhanced BSL2 conditions).



Safety precautions during specimen collection

Personnel collecting clinical specimens should wear a fit-tested N95 respirator, goggles, disposable gown, and disposable gloves.

When completed, place all personal protective equipment in a biohazard bag for appropriate disposal. Wash hands thoroughly with soap and water or alcohol-based hand gel



Medication

Zanamivir (Relenza) and oseltamivir (Tamiflu)



[1] California Department of Public Health

http://ww2.cdph.ca.gov/programs/vrdl/Pages/TestingforSwineInfluenzaA(H1N1).aspx




28.044.2009: Live-animal test to detect scrapie in goats [1]

Scrapie is a form of transmissible spongiform encephalopathy in goat and sheep. The degenerative disease causes tremors, lip-smacking, weight loss, a hopping gait, and other peculiar symptoms. Scrapie-afflicted animals cannot be cured, and they eventually die.



Rectal mucosal-associated lymphoid tissue (RMALT)

Katherine O'Rourke and Tom Truscott developed the rectal mucosa biopsy test (RMBT) or rectal biopsy, which consists of snipping a tiny piece of lymphoid tissue from the animal's rectum using local anesthesia. Lymphoid tissue is used because it collects malformed proteins called prions, which are thought to cause scrapie. The RMALT test is based on the currently used third-eyelid test. The rectal biopsy has also been used in deer, elk, sheep, and now goats.



The third-eyelid test

The third-eyelid test has been used by APHIS and state veterinarians since 2002 as an official test to detect scrapie in sheep. It involves snipping a tiny piece of lymphoid tissue from the animal’s nictitating membrane, or third eyelid, staining it with antibodies, and examining it under a microscope.



The ARS characterizes the prion protein gene of goats to identify differences between individual animals and those who are diseased. Their work, together with APHIS aims to eliminate scrapie from US herds to reduce costs of physical loss of animals, disposal of carcasses and offal, trade restrictions and diminished domestic and international markets for breeding stock, semen and embryos.



Scrapie prevention in sheep flocks

ARS uses selective breeding of sheep with the version of the prion protein gene (dubbed “R171”) that confers resistance. The R171 prion gene version has never been found in goats, but there are several gene variants in goats which might confer resistance to scrapie. These findings are used in flocks where scrapie is found. Only the genetically susceptible sheep are removed.

The researchers found four gene variants (R143, S146, H154, and K222) which were relatively rare or absent in animals that developed scrapie in previous outbreaks, suggesting that they might increase resistance to scrapie. [2]



The current eradication effort includes early detection through slaughter surveillance and reporting of clinical suspects, flock management and selective breeding in sheep, scrapie-free flock certification, and producer outreach and education.

ARS will continue to do research on genetic resistance, diagnostic testing, and transmission modes. To improve prevention rather than removing infected animals.



[1] USDA ARS: News and Events: ARS and Partners Set Their Sights on Scrapie in Goats

http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/archive/apr09/goats0409.htm



[2] White, Stephen; Herrmann-Hoesing, Lynn; O'rourke, Katherine; Waldron, Daniel; Rowe, Joan; Alverson, Janet: Prion gene (PRNP) haplotype variation in United States goat breeds (Open Access publication) p. 553

http://www.gse-journal.org/articles/gse/pdf/2008/05/g07098.pdf



28.04.2009: Nothing but hot air: German Environment Minister Gabriel pleased to have seen Obama

President Obama invited the participants of the "Major Economies Forum on Energy and Climate" Gabriel invited the climate group to the White House for individual discussions.



The outcome of this encounter was meager. The German Environment Minister Gabriel pledged for a reduction of 40% compared to 1990 levels of CO2 emission. Obama told Gabriel the US was willing to reduce 6 to 7% following the "American Clean Energy and Security Act of 2009".



At the Forum India and China made clear that there will be no binding CO2 emissions reductions if the industrialized nations don't undertake massive reductions.

President Obama signalized little chance for the US to do anything on climate issue in the face of the final meltdown of the American economy.



It is to hope that Minister Gabriel will be put in swine flu quarantine on his returns to Germany.



27.04.2009: Climate change may require reduction of average water use in the region of the Colorado River [1]

Barnett and Pierce 2009 found that climate change may dry out the Lakes Mead and Powel, reservoirs on the Colorado River The authors say that this will happen in the next 20 years if no effort will be undertaken to preserve a minimum amount of water in the reservoir. Such measures could be delivery cuts. Lake Mead and Powel were build based on data of the 20th century which was very wet, compared with data from tree rings of the region. Therefore an increasing chance of substantial shortages during dry years is predicted by Barnett and Pierce. Water delivery shortage of 60 -90% of the Colorado River region is being expected.

The authors concluded that big shortfalls may be avoided if the river's users reduce their average water use. The sustainability of the system could thus be secured even if the climate changes.



Food production of the region will be affected by drought.



[1] Barnett, Tim P.; Pierce, Dawid W.: Sustainable water deliveries from the Colorado River in a changing climate. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America PNAS. Published online before print April 20, 2009, doi: 10.1073/pnas.0812762106

http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2009/04/17/0812762106.abstract





27.04.2009: Fructose-sweetened beverages [1]

Havel and colleagues assessed the effect of a diet containing 25% glucose- or fructose-sweetened beverages for 10 weeks. They report that both groups gained about 1.5 kg, and visceral fat was increased in the fructose group, but not in the glucose group. Visceral fat is linked to an increased risk of both type 2 diabetes and heart disease. Also an increase of LDL-cholesterol levels was found, and insulin sensitivity decreased compared with the glucose group. The authors concluded that fructose promotes disorders of the lipid physiology, increased risk of both type 2 diabetes and heart disease and increases visceral fat in overweight persons.



Intake of fructose and glucose, particularly the High Fructose Corn Syrup HFCS and sugar should be reduced. The consumer must read the list of ingredients. HFCS is almost everywhere present such as fruit yoghurt. Get simple yoghurt and mix it at home with your favourite fruits. Do not use sugar. You will learn to appreciate natural flavour of food without over-sweetness or over-saltiness.



[1] Stanhope KL, Schwarz JM, Keim NL, Griffen SC, Bremer AA, Graham JL, Hatcher B, Cox CL, Dyachenko A, Zhang W, McGahan JP, Seibert A, Krauss RM, Chiu S, Schaefer EJ, Ai M, Otokozawa S, Nakajima K, Nakano T, Beysen C, Hellerstein MK, Berglund L, Havel PJ.: Consuming fructose-sweetened, not glucose-sweetened, beverages increases visceral adiposity and lipids and decreases insulin sensitivity in overweight/obese humans. J Clin Invest. 2009 Apr 20. pii: 37385. doi: 10.1172/JCI37385

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19381015



26.04.2009: Antioxidant-rich foods and essential fatty acids slows down brain decay [1]

Willis, Shukitt-Hale and Joseph 2009 report that increased oxidative stress and modifications in brain lipid composition cause damage and dysfunction of the ageing brain. The authors stress that inclusion of antioxidant-rich foods and essential fatty acids in the diet can slow the age-related progression of cognitive and behavioural decline.



Moderate consume of walnuts protects brain from ageing [2]

James A. Joseph and colleagues 2009 found that adding a moderate, 7 to 9 walnuts/day to an otherwise healthy diet improves motor and behavioural skills middle-aged individuals. Polyphenols, other antioxidants and essential fatty acids are the content of walnut which cause the beneficial neurological effects. However, higher doses of walnut impaired performance in the rodent study.

The authors concluded that walnuts, eaten in moderation protect the neural tissue from ageing



Blackberry improves cognitive function in aged rats [3]

Joseph and colleagues 2009 write that polyphenols from fruits and vegetables increasing antioxidant and/or anti-inflammatory levels, or by direct effects on signalling, in the brain retard and even reverse age-related decrements in motor and cognitive performance.



The authors report that increased dietary intake of 2% blackberry-supplemented diet improved balance and co-ordination working, or short-term, memory performance in aged rats.



[1] Willis, L.M.; Shukitt-Hale, B.; Joseph, J.A.: Modulation of cognition and behavior in aged animals: role for antioxidant- and essential fatty acid-rich plant foods. Am J Clin Nutr. 2009 May;89(5):1602S-1606S

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19339395



[2] Willis, Lauren M.; Shukitt-Hale, Barbara; Cheng, Vivian; Joseph, James A.: Dose-dependent effects of walnuts on motor and cognitive function in aged rats. British Journal of Nutrition , Volume 101, Issue 08, April 2009, pp 1140-1144 doi:10.1017/S0007114508059369

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18778529



[3] Shukitt-Hale B, Cheng V, Joseph JA: Effects of blackberries on motor and cognitive function in aged rats. Nutr Neurosci. 2009 Jun;12(3):135-40

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19356316



26.04.2009: Continuous air monitoring of Campylobacter for broiler flocks [1]

Campylobacteer is the most common case of diarrhoea in humans, and poultry counts for half of the infections.



Olsen and colleagues 2009 assessed the detection of Campylobacter by PCR in feces, dust, and air samples in poultry houses, and found that the sensitivity of detection of Campylobacter in air is comparable to that in other sample materials.



A low proportions of particles in the 0.5- to 2-µm-diameter range and high proportions in the 2- to 5-µm-diameter range was found. PCR detection of Campylobacter in air samples could also be performed at the hanging stage during the slaughter process but not at other places at the slaughterhouse. The researchers concluded that new detection technologies, allow continuous monitoring of colonization status.



[1] Olsen, Katja N. ; Lund, Marianne; Skov, Julia; Christensen, Laurids S.; Hoorfar,Jeffrey Detection of Campylobacter Bacteria in Air Samples for Continuous Real-Time Monitoring of Campylobacter Colonization in Broiler Flocks. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 2009; 75 (7): 2074 DOI: 10.1128/AEM.02182-08

http://aem.asm.org/cgi/content/abstract/75/7/2074




25.04.2009: Swine Influenza A [H1N1] virus mutation is resistant to antiviral drugs [1]
 

New epedemic from swine may become pandemic:The virus found in pigs infected humans. Now the subtype of the influenza virus which caused the death of 20 to 50 million people in 1918 can travel from person to person. [2] In 2005 a virus laboratory regained the plasmid of the 1918 epidemic using samples of human corpses which had been buried in Arctic permafrost. About 1000 are hospitalized in Mexico city and 18 already died. California report 6 cases of the new H1N1 virus which is resistant to Tamiflu antiviral drug. In California 6 persons and two in Texas were tested positive for H1N1.New York under virus attack: New York under virus attack: The Swine Influenza A H1N1 spreads in schools of New York, 75 students tested positive for the virus. No vaccine specifically protects against swine flu. Tamiflu and Relenza, seem effective against the new strain, however, they must be taken early, within a few days of the onset of symptoms. [4] WHO: According to the World Health Organization (WHO) the level of overall influenza activity in the world increased with prevalence of very high oseltamivir resistance. [5] However, the Swine Influenza A/H1N1 viruses so far characterized in the actual outbreak in Mexico, USA and Canada have not been previously detected in pigs or humans, and have been sensitive to oseltamivir, but resistant to both amantadine and rimantad. [6]

CDC scientist working on influenza under high bio-safety conditions. Source=CDC, CDC Public Health Image Library (PHIL), http://phil.cdc.gov/Phil/details.asp

Recommendations [1]

CDC recommends:

There are everyday actions people can take to stay healthy.

- Cover your nose and mouth with a tissue when you cough or sneeze. Throw the tissue in the trash after you use it.

- Wash your hands often with soap and water, especially after you cough or sneeze. Alcohol-based hands cleaners are also effective.

- Avoid touching your eyes, nose or mouth. Germs spread that way.

Try to avoid close contact with sick people.

- Influenza is thought to spread mainly person-to-person through coughing or sneezing of infected people.

- If you get sick, CDC recommends that you stay home from work or school and limit contact with others to keep from infecting them.

Other effective measures to avoid infection:

- Avoid handshaking

- Avoid kissing

- Use surgical mask



Antiviral drugs resistance [3]

Oseltamivirn (Tamiflu): Concern about H5N1 bird flu caused the development of the Tamiflu drug the new flu causing concern is a pig virus, of a family known as H1N1. The antiviral drug Tamiflu, also known as Oseltamivir blocks the H5N1 enzyme Neuraminidase, and was known to be efficient against influenza viruses A and B.

The H1N1 mutated the expression of the enzyme and became resistant to these antiviral drugs. Health official advice, therefore, not to use Oseltamivir any more, or when, give it together with Amantadine (Relenza), which is an uncoating inhibitor.

Amantidine (Symmetrel): In Europe infections with H1N1 are about 10% of flue cases, and H3N2-Viruses are more common. H3N2 viruses are resistant to Amantadine, but sensitive to Oseltamivir, which is also efficient against influenza B viruses.

Zanamivir [Relenza]: According to Patrick Hollstein 2009 there is no resistance of H1N1 to the second neuraminidase inhibitor Zanamivir (Relenza ) reported. It is useful against influenza viruse A and B.

Rimatidine (Flumadine): It is active only against influenza A viruses.



[1] CDC: Human Swine Influenza Investigation. April 25, 2009

http://www.cdc.gov/swineflu/investigation.htm



[2] Johnson, Niall P. A. S. / Mueller, Juergen D. „Updating the Accounts: Global Mortality of the 1918-1920 „Spanish“ Influenza Pandemic“, Bulletin of the History of Medicine Volume 76, Number 1, Spring 2002, S. 105–115. DOI: 10.1353/bhm.2002.0022

http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/bulletin_of_the_history_of_medicine/v076/76.1johnson.html



[3] Hollstein, Patrick: Apotheke ad Hoc: H1N1 resistent gegen Tamiflu. 11.03.2009.

http://www.apotheke-adhoc.de/index.php?m=1&s=5&showPage=4&id=5749

[4] The Gardian: Swine flu H1N1: evolution of a virus. 26.04.2009

http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/apr/26/flu-pandemic-flu



[5] Influenza A(H1N1) virus resistance to oseltamivir - 2008/2009 influenza season,

northern hemisphere. 18 March 2009

http://www.who.int/csr/disease/influenza/H1N1webupdate20090318%20ed_ns.pdf



[6] Epidemic and Pandemic Alert and Response (EPR): Influenza-like illness in the United States and Mexico. WHO 24.04.2009

The Gardian: Swine flu H1N1: evolution of a virus.
26.04.2009 http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/apr/26/flu-pandemic-flu %5B5%5D Influenza A%28H1N1%29 virus resistance to oseltamivir - 2008/2009 influenza season, northern hemisphere. 18 March 2009 %5B6%5D Epidemic and Pandemic Alert and Response %28EPR%29: Influenza-like illness in the United States and Mexico. WHO 24.04.2009 http://www.who.int/csr/don/2009_04_24/en/index.html




24.04.2009: A network of regulatory elements regulates cells [1] [2]

Professor John Mattick and colleagues performing the "FANTOM4 study found that there is a sophisticated network of regulatory elements that influence the expression of genes of the body. This opens the understanding on how cells transform from undifferentiated cells to mature cells with a specific function and explain why some cells turn cancerous and how stem cells may be used use in regenerative medicine.

Some results of the study are:



Tiny RNAs [3]

Tiny RNAs are 18 nucleotides long, 100 times smaller than an average gene and are the smallest genetic elements ever described. According to the authors tiny RNAs are associated with promoters that switch on genes, and have a role in gene activation, and may be used to artificially control gene expression.



Retrotransposons [4]

Retrotransposons are also called transposons via RNA intermediates and are a subclass of transposons. They are genetic elements that move around the genome and leave copies of themselves behind. Retrotransposons are only active in cancer cells and cells that turn into eggs and sperm, The authors noted that retrotransposons, which do not move around the genome any more, may still regulate the expression of nearby genes.



Transposons revealing gene functions [5]

Tian Xu and colleagues 2005 found how to switch on and off the expression of genes of the mouse genome to make it possible to study their functions. The researchers mutate each gene, to observe the resulting changes, revealins thus gene function. Transposons, elements which can move from place to place in the DNA are used in these studies. Transposons allow material to be inserted or relocated.

Transposons have proved to be valuable genetic tools for many organisms, but not for vertebrates and mammals. Xu and colleagues used the transposon piggyBac from the cabbage looper moth in mouse and human cell lines. A red fluorescent protein and an enzyme changing the color of a mouse from white to black was added to worke as a marker. Expressions of the altered genes were inherited though five generations. The PiggyBac transposon can be removed from the next generation by breeding with a mouse bearing an enzyme which excises the transposon. The team of Xu is scaling up piggyBac for the Mouse Functional Genome Project.



The Mouse Functional Genome Project {6]

The project tries to mutate the majority of mouse genes in China to understand the functions of the mammalian genes in context and to identify the causes of complex diseases having a genetic background in mammals The project aims to close the gap between genotype and phenotype studying the function of isolated proteins extended to their functional context in the cellular environment.



[1] Fantom 4

http://fantom.gsc.riken.jp/4/



[2] Suzuki et al. The transcriptional network that controls growth arrest and differentiation in a human myeloid leukemia cell line. Nature Genetics, 2009; DOI: 10.1038/ng.375

http://www.nature.com/ng/journal/vaop/ncurrent/abs/ng.375.html



[3] Taft et al. Tiny RNAs associated with transcription start sites in animals. Nature Genetics, 2009; DOI: 10.1038/ng.312

http://www.nature.com/ng/journal/vaop/ncurrent/abs/ng.312.html



[4] Faulkner et al. The regulated retrotransposon transcriptome of mammalian cells. Nature Genetics, 2009; DOI: 10.1038/ng.368

http://www.nature.com/ng/journal/vaop/ncurrent/abs/ng.368.html



[5] Ding, Sheng; Li, Xiaohui Wu, Gang; Han, Min; Zhuang, Yuan; Xu, Tian : Efficient Transposition of the piggyBac (PB) Transposon in Mammalian Cells and Mice. Cell, Volume 122, Issue 3, 473-483, 12 August 2005 doi:10.1016/j.cell.2005.07.013

http://www.cell.com/retrieve/pii/S0092867405007075


[6] Ruepp, Andreas; Doudieu, Octave Noubibou; van den Oever, Jos; Brauner, Barbara; Dunger-Kaltenbach, Irmtraud; Fobo, Gisela; Frishman, Goar; Montrone, Corinna; Skornia, Christine; Wanka, Steffi; Rattei, Thomas; Pagel, Philipp; Riley, Louise; Frishman, Dmitrij; Surmeli, Dimitrij; Tetko, Igor V.; Oesterheld, Matthias; Stümpflen. ; Mewes, H. Werner : The Mouse Functional Genome Database (MfunGD): functional annotation of proteins in the light of their cellular context. Nucleic Acids Research, 2006, Vol. 34, Database issue D568-D571.

http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/34/suppl_1/D568



24.04.2009: Environmental conditions induce changes in pathogenesis of Salmonella [1]

Researchers found that the expression of genes required for invasion is tightly regulated by environmental conditions and a variety of regulatory genes in Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium. The hilA regulator activates the expression of invasion genes in response to both environmental and genetic regulatory factors. The regulation of hilA expression is a key point for controlling expression of the invasive phenotype.



According to Jones 2005 positive regulators of hilA expression were found to be csrAB, sirA/barA, pstS, hilC/sirC/sprA, fis, and hilD and HilD and negative regulators are hilE, hha, pag, and lon.



The author says that the HilE gene Salmonella-specific regulator inactivates the hilA expression. The work of the author focuses on how the environmental signals that affect hilA expression of invasiveness may act through the hilE pathway.



Spaceshuttle missions improve unterstanding of virulence of Salmonella [2]

The spaceflight environment induces novel changes in microbial pathogenesis not observed using conventional methods. Nickerson et al. report that spaceflight-induced changes increase the virulence of Salmonella regulated by media ion composition, and that phosphate ion is sufficient to alter related pathogenesis responses in spaceflight conditions.



The authors identified evolutionarily conserved molecular pathways in Salmonella that respond to spaceflight. These findings open new ways to control microbial responses during the infection and improve vaccines.



[1] Jones, B.D.: Salmonella invasion gene regulation: a story of environmental awareness. J Microbiol. 2005 Feb;43 Spec No:110-7.

http://www.msk.or.kr/jsp/view_old_journalD.jsp?paperSeq=2132



[2] Wilson JW, Ott CM, Quick L, Davis R, Höner zu Bentrup K, Crabbé A, Richter E, Sarker S, Barrila J, Porwollik S, Cheng P, McClelland M, Tsaprailis G, Radabaugh T, Hunt A, Shah M, Nelman-Gonzalez M, Hing S, Parra M, Dumars P, Norwood K, Bober R, Devich J, Ruggles A, CdeBaca A, Narayan S, Benjamin J, Goulart C, Rupert M, Catella L, Schurr MJ, Buchanan K, Morici L, McCracken J, Porter MD, Pierson DL, Smith SM, Mergeay M, Leys N, Stefanyshyn-Piper HM, Gorie D, Nickerson CA: Media ion composition controls regulatory and virulence response of Salmonella in spaceflight. PLoS ONE. 2008; 3(12): e3923. Published online 2008 December 12. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0003923.

http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=19079590



23.04.2009: The European Food Safety Authority says Aspartame is safe [1]

On 19 February 2009, the Ramazzini Institute submitted to EFSA some of the requested data by the Pannel to assess the ERF carcinogenicity study with prenatal exposure on aspartame as reported by Soffritti et al.



The final conclusion was that data were not sufficient for the evaluation of malignant tumour incidences which must consider all tumours. These data were not provided by the authors.

Lymphomas and leukemias observed appeared to chronic respiratory diseases and not related to an effect of aspartame.

The increase in incidence of mammary carcinoma is not considered indicative of a carcinogenic potential of aspartame since the incidence of mammary tumours in female rats is rather high and varies considerably between carcinogenicity studies.

The Panel concluded that aspartame is not genotoxic or carcinogenic and the established ADI for aspartame of 40 mg/kg bw/day may remain unchanged.



[1] EFSA: Updated opinion on a request from the European Commission related to the 2nd ERF carcinogenicity study on aspartame, taking into consideration study data submitted by the Ramazzini Foundation in February 2009. Published: 20 April 2009 Adopted: 19 March 2009

http://www.efsa.europa.eu/EFSA/efsa_locale-1178620753812_1211902454309.htm

22.04.2009: Genomics, a clinical decision support [1]

Bart De Moor et al., 2009 propose a kernel-based approach for clinical decision support in which many genome-wide data sources are combined using an As supervised classification algorithm, a weighted Least Squares Support Vector Machine.



The authors stress the importance of fusing more than one source of genome-wide data such as the genome, transcriptome, proteome, and epigenome linked by a methodological integration framework. The authors used this framework on a rectal cancer data set containing microarray and proteomics data and a prostate cancer data set containing microarray and genomics data. They noted the improving of the prediction of all outcomes when more than one genome-wide data set was considered.



The authors concluded that integrating multiple genome-wide data sources increases the predictive performance of clinical decision support models in patient tailored therapy.



[1] Daemen, Anneleen; Gevaert, Olivier; Ojeda, Fabian; Debucquoy, Annelies; Suykens, Johan AK; Sempoux, Christine;Machiels, Jean-Pascal; Haustermans, Karin; De Moor,Bart : A kernel-based integration of genome-wide data for clinical decision support. Genome Medicine 2009, Published: 3 April 2009. 1:39doi:10.1186/gm39

http://www.genomemedicine.com/content/pdf/gm39.pdf





21.04.2009: The Federal Trade Commission bars deceptive or misleading claims of Kellogg’s Frosted Mini-Wheats [1]

The Federal Trade Commission announced that the Kellogg Company has agreed to settle charges that advertising claims touting a breakfast of Frosted Mini-Wheats as “clinically shown to improve kids’ attentiveness by nearly 20%” were false and violated federal law. The proposed settlement bars deceptive or misleading cognitive health claims for Kellogg’s breakfast foods and snack foods and bars the company from misrepresenting any tests or studies.



The FTC chairman Jon Leibowitz. calls on America’s leading companies to be ‘attentive’ to the truthfulness of their ads and don’t exaggerate the results of tests or research.



The CSPI, commenting the settlement, states that Kellogg could improve children’s attentiveness phasing out the use of Blue 1, Blue 2, Red 40, and any other synthetic food dyes present in some varieties of Mini-Wheats. Those dyes exacerbate some children’s hyperactivity and behavioural problems. [2]



Exagerating the results of studies like the Kellog's claims, undermines the confidence of the consumer on the producer and brings the advertising industry into discredit.



[1] Federal Trade Commission: Kellogg Settles FTC Charges That Ads for Frosted Mini-Wheats Were False. News Release 4/20/2009

http://www.ftc.gov/opa/2009/04/kellogg.shtm



[2] CSPI: Federal Trade Commission Stops Kellogg from Claiming Frosted Mini-Wheats “Improve Kids’ Attentiveness” in School. Statement of CSPI Legal Affairs Director Bruce Silverglade.

http://www.cspinet.org/new/200904201.html



20.04.2009: The consumer does not understand the meaning of Halal and Kosher foods. [1] [2]

According to a reports from Packaged Facts and from Mintel the majority of American consumers buy kosher and/or halal foods foods expecting higher quality and safety, compared with normal foods. They are not motivated by religious or ethnic reasons. The reports stress that these products present best marketing conditions exploring the kosher or the halal certification label inducing safety image. This may be deceiving for the consumer.



Understanding Kosher and Halal Food [3]

Both ethnic foods do not mean that safety or quality is better than normal foods. They differ from western food because they are manufactured according to religious believes. Their principles are not based on science, but on rules found in the Holy Bible and in The Holy Quran, such as:



- Ritual slaughter by cutting the throat of the animal.

- Negation of pork.

- Kosher foods forbid mixing dairy products and meat.

- Alcohol is strictly forbidden for Halal, and vanilla is not allowed because it may be produced using alcohol extraction. Some liquor and wine are kosher if made only by Jews.

- Gelatine is forbidden because it may come from pork.



Certification

Certification can be made by private entities and varies according to the religious expert who emits the label. In some cases HACCP enquiries are added to the certification procedure, but this is not an essential part of the meaning of Halal or Kosher. Complying with HACCP standards and hygiene requirements are demanded by food regulation such as the Article 21. FDA and every food must comply with them and is not a speciality of ethnic food .



[1] Packaged Facts: Market Trend: Kosher- and Halal-Certified Foods in the U.S. Report May 1, 2009

http://www.packagedfacts.com/MarketTrend-Kosher-Halal-1282406/



[2] Kamaruzaman, Kamarul Aznam: Halal, Kosher and the USA. The Halal Journal May/June 2006.

http://www.halaljournal.com/article/2753/halal,-kosher-and-the-usa



[3] Chow: Mystery deli term. By Jason Horn

http://www.chow.com/stories/10481




19.04.2009: Studying the toxicology of nanoparticles [1]

Rothen-Rutishauser and colleagues 2009 assessed the toxicity of cerium oxide nanoparticles produced by flame spray synthesis when deposited on the surface of cultured lung cells. Cell viability was not impaired, however, the permeability of the cell layer increased.



According to the authors certain structures of particular proteins that seal the interstices between the epithelial cells had altered under the influence of the nanoparticles, and oxidative DNA damage increased. The authors say that the method used in their study may be used for further studies combining the production and the tocicologic study of nanoparticles.



[1] Rothen-Rutishauser, Barbara; Grass, Robert N.; Blank, Fabian; Limbach, Ludwig K.; Mühlfeld, Christian; Brandenberger, Christina; Raemy, David O.; Wendelin, Gehr; Stark, Peter J.: Direct Combination of Nanoparticle Fabrication and Exposure to Lung Cell Cultures in a Closed Setup as a Method To Simulate Accidental Nanoparticle Exposure of Humans. Environmental Science & Technology, 2009; 43 (7): 2634. DOI: 10.1021/es8029347

http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es8029347




17.04.2009: The Human Epignome Project must reconsider its standard analytical method [1]

Kriaucionis and Heintz 2009 identified an additional character in the mammalian DNA code, the nucleotide as 5-hydroxymethyl-2’-deoxycytidine (hmdC) which is a constituent of nuclear DNA that is enriched in the brain. The authors suggest that hmdC excerts a role in epigenetic control of neuronal function.



Definition of epigenetic [2]

Epigenetics is the study of nongenetic factors that manage the regulation of gene expression.

Shilatifard and colleagues 2009 , proposed a definition of in which “an epigenetic trait is a stably inherited phenotype resulting from changes in a chromosome without alterations in the DNA sequence.” The authors also proposed three categories of signals establishing a stably heritable epigenetic state: The first is a signal from the environment, the second is a responding signal in the cell that specifies the affected chromosomal location, and the third is a sustaining signal that perpetuates the chromatin change in subsequent generations.

The amino acids adenine, thymine, guanine and cytosine (A, T, G and C) make up the DNA code. Epigenetic studies found that two other nucleotide, 5-methylcytosine (5-mC), and the 5-hydroxymethylcytosine regulate the gene expression.



Gene silencing takes place when cytosine is methylated to 5-methylcytosine, induced by the enzyme DNA methyltransferase at sites where cytosine precedes guanine in the DNA code. DNA methylation influences the differentiation of embryonic stem cells into the different cell types that constitute the diverse tissues of the body in the embrionic stage. Environmental factors and experiences may cause methylation patterns influencing behaviours that are heritable for several generations.



Standard analytical method to DNA methylation site identification [1]

The identification of the sites of DNA methylation uses bisulfite sequencing. Kriaucionis and colleagues found that this analytical method cannot distinguish between 5-hydroxymethylcytosine and 5-methylcytosine and early studies must be revised, such as the Human Epigenome Project which maps all of the sites of methylation using bisulfite sequencing.

The role of 5-hydroxymethylcytosine is not clear, but the authors suggest that it may play a role in demethylating DNA and have a positive role in regulating gene expression as well.



Enzyme which converts 5mC to hmC [3]

DNA cytosine methylation is crucial for retrotransposon silencing and mammalian development

Rao et al 2009 identified proteins of the TET genes as the 2-oxoglutarate (2OG)- and Fe(II)-dependent enzyme that catalyzes conversion of 5mC to 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (hmC). TET proteins have potential roles in epigenetic regulation through modification of 5mC to hmC.

This enzyme may explain the dynamic system of the expression of silencing of genes.



[1] Skirmantas Kriaucionis and Nathaniel Heintz: The Nuclear DNA Base 5-Hydroxymethylcytosine Is Present in Purkinje Neurons and the Brain. Science, 2009; DOI: 10.1126/science.1169786

http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/1169786v1



[2] Berger SL, Kouzarides T, Shiekhattar R, Shilatifard A.: An operational definition of epigenetics. Genes Dev. 2009 Apr 1;23(7):781-3.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19339683



[3]Tahiliani, Mamta; Peng Koh, Kian; Shen, Yinghua; Pastor, William A.; Bandukwala, Hozefa; Brudno, Yevgeny;Agarwal, Suneet; Iyer, Lakshminarayan M.; Liu, David R. ; Aravind, L.; Rao, Anjana: Conversion of 5-Methylcytosine to 5-Hydroxymethylcytosine in Mammalian DNA by the MLL Fusion Partner TET1

http://www.scienceonline.org/cgi/content/abstract/1170116




17.04.2009: Nosema ceranae may cause honey bee Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) in Spain [1]

Higes and colleagues 2009 report that the depopulation in two Spanish colonies known as colony collapse disorder (CCD) were due to the infection by Nosema ceranae (Microsporidia), an emerging honeybee pathogen. No other significant pathogens or pesticides (neonicotinoids) were detected and the bees had not been foraging in corn or sunflower crops. The treatment with fumagillin avoided the loss of surviving weak colonies.



The microsporidia are spore-forming unicellular parasites, infesting insects crustaceans, fish and vertebrates, including in humans. Some species produce deadly infections ans some are even used as biological control of insects pests.

Colony collapse disorder (or CCD) is a phenomenon in which worker bees from a beehive colony abruptly disappear. Honeybees are important pollinators of crops.



The eastern hive bee Apis cerana, were found to be infected by Nosema apis and the western hive bee Apis mellifera is susceptible to Nosema ceranae.



According to Professor Fries Nosema ceranae differs in their ultrastructure and genetics from Nosema apis. Paxton writes that Nosema ceranae jumped host from Apis cerana to Apis mellifera within the last decade. It is found nowadays in the western honey bee in North and South America, the Caribbean, across Europe and Asia. [2]



Possible causes of CCD were cited such as Varroa mites and insect diseases including Nosema apis and Israel acute paralysis virus, environmental change-related stresses,malnutrition and pesticides, and migratory beekeeping. Other unproved causes were cited, such as cell phone radiation and genetically modified (GM) crops used to control pests. Some researchers suggest that the combination of many factors may finaly be the cause of the disease.





[1] Higes, Mariano; Martín-Hernández, Raquel; Garrido-Bailón, Encarna; González-Porto, Amelia V.; García-Palencia, Pilar; Meana, Aranzazu; del Nozal, María J. Mayo, R.; Bernal, José L.: Honeybee colony collapse due to Nosema ceranae in professional apiaries. Environmental Microbiology Reports, 2009; 1 (2): 110 DOI: 10.1111/j.1758-2229.2009.00014.x

http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/122204880/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0



[2] Nosema ceranae - a new threat to Apis mellifera honey bees

Robert J Paxton, School of Biological Sciences, Queen’s University Belfast, UK

(originally published in Bees for Development Journal 81)

http://www.beesfordevelopment.org/info/info/disease/nosema-ceranae-a-new-thre.shtml

14.04.2008: Tainted alcoholic beverages induce deadly methanol intoxication in Turkey [1]

Turkey is known for illegal home distilleries producing fake alcoholic beverages with high methanol content, which are sold in markets and restaurants.

The latest deadly case happened in late March 2009 when German students, on a trip to Antalya, Turkey, bought two bottles of vodka and two bottles of cola, for 25 euros in the hotel where they were staying. Three students dyed and four were intoxicated. Methanol poisoning was confirmed as the cause of death.

Other known methanol poisoning in Turkey were reported in 2005 whit 22 deaths in Istambul drinking tainted Raki.

Another case related to methanol caused the death of 5 persons in Bursa, near Istambul.



Methanol was formerly obtained by the distillation of wood and called "wood alcohol." Methanol is intoxicating but not directly poisonous. It is toxic by its breakdown (toxication) by the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase in the liver by forming formic acid and formaldehyde which cause permanent blindness by destruction of the optic nerve.



US Maximum level of methanol in wine [2]

The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) advised ATF that 0.1 percent of methanol by volume in wine was a safe level. Any wine containing methanol in excess of this amount is deemed adulterated pursuant to the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act, 21 U.S.C. 34l(a)(2)(C) and 348.



Methanol intoxication in Nepal [3]

Rajbhandari et al., 2008 describe an outbreak of methanol poisoning July-August 2008, leading to death of 10 people in Nepal. “Sofi”, a locally brewed alcoholic drink, was adulterated with methanol.

The lethal dose of pure methanol is estimated to be 1-2 mL/kg; however, permanent blindness and death have been reported with as little as 0.1 mL/kg5.



The metabolic pathway of methanol: Methanol is converted to formaldehyde by alcohol dehydrogenase then to formic acid by aldehyde dehydrogenase, which is then degraded to carbon dioxide (CO2) and water, where folate is a cofactor. In this reaction, formic acid causes metabolic acidosis and CNS damage.



The authors stress that the production of formic acid takes time which explains the delay in the onset of the symptoms. They deplore that they have not been able to educate the local people due to the ignorance of rural people and the ineffective support from government, leaving uncontrolled adulterated products on market posing a health risk of the population.



High percentage of counterfeit alcoholic beverage on the Brazilian market [4]

NAGATO, Leticia Araujo Farah et al. 2001 verifyed the authenticity of alcoholic beverages (whisky, vodka, ginger spirit, etc.) from 1993 to August 1999. The authors found that 64.3% of the analysed products were counterfeit, and 2 products presented levels of methanol above the limit tolerated by the Brazilian legislation (200mg/100mL absolute alcohol). The authors point out that there is a high percentage of counterfeit alcoholic beverages on market. They stress the risk to human health because of the presence of methanol, and call for a stringent control of these products.



Deliberate addition of methanol to wines [5]

Swiss tolerable values of metanol in various brandies are set, depending on the beverage, at 2-15 g/L of pure alcohol, and 0.15-0.3 g/kg for wines. Much higher levels had been obtained in cases of adulterated wines in Italy in 1985, following deliberate addition of methanol. Consumption of such beverages provoked several deaths or permanent blindness.



The minimal human lethal dose has been estimated within a range of 0.3-1.0 g/kg BW. Chronic toxicity is not well characterized.



Tolerable daily dose of methanol [6]

Paine and Davan 2008 facing the fact that illicit drinks made from "industrial methylated spirits" (5% (v/v) methanol:95% (v/v) ethanol) represent a serious health hazard, determined the maximum concentration of methanol in an alcoholic drink that an adult human could consume without risking toxicity due to its methanol content. The authors found a tolerable ("safe") daily dose of methanol in an adult as 2 g and a toxic dose as 8 g. These results are in accordance with the current EU general limit for naturally occurring methanol of 10 g methanol/l ethanol (which equates to 0.4% (v/v) methanol at 40% alcohol]) provides a greater margin of safety for ethnic, age and other factors.



Higher alcohols are not the cause of adverse effects of surrogate alcohol [7]

Higher alcohols occur naturally in alcoholic beverages as by-products of alcoholic fermentation, and are regarded as important flavour compounds, however, high levels of the fusel oils may be toxic.



Lachenmeyer et al., 2008 found that the reasonable preliminary guideline level for a maximum tolerable concentration would be 1000 g/hl of pure alcohol for the sum of all higher alcohols, such as 1-propanol, 1-butanol, 2-butanol, isobutanol, isoamyl alcohol and 1-hexanol. The authors stress that this level is higher than the concentrations usually found in both legal alcoholic beverages and surrogate alcohols. Higher alcohols are therefore not the cause for the adverse effects of surrogate alcohol.



Addiction to alcoholic beverages [8]

Sprung et al., 1988 postulates that ethanol is oxidised to acetaldehyde which may condense with endogenous amines to form tetrahydroisoquinoline (TIQ) and - tetrahydro-beta-carboline (THBC) alkaloids which ultimately might be responsible for addiction. Chronic alcoholics prefer normal alcoholic beverages instead of an ethanol solution. Sprung believes that this peference is due to the additional content of methanol of these beverages which is metabolised to formaldehyde which is more reactive to form TIQ and THBC than acetaldehyde. The authors concluded that methanol may be more important than ethanol in addiction to alcoholic beverages.



Methanol in African beverages [9] [10]

Homemade alcoholic beverages from millet, maize or palm oil alcohol are sold on the African streets. They may contain methanol because of the rudimentary equipment used in the production.



Methanol poisoning continues to be a public health problem in Tunisia. Brahmi and colleagues reported 16 cases of methanol intoxicatioin in Tunesia 2003/2004.



Hepatotoxicity of ethanol [11] [12]

The fatal dose of ethanol is 300-400 mL of pure ethanol (600-800 mL of 50% spirits), for the average adult if consumed in less than one hour.

According to Lieber 1993 alcohol is hepatotoxic because of secondary malnutrition and through metabolic disturbances associated with the oxidation of ethanol, such as redox changes produced by the nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) generated via the liver alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) pathway affecting the metabolism of lipids, carbohydrates, proteins, and purines.



In addition to ADH, ethanol can be oxidized by liver microsomes, the cytochrome P450 (P4502E1)

contributing to increased acetaldehyde generation. P-450 induction also explains depletion (and enhanced toxicity) of nutritional factors such as vitamin A.



Ethanol causes not only vitamin A depletion, but it also enhances its hepatotoxicity. Supplementing vitamin A to alleviate the effects of deficiency and night blindness , the authors stress that it is important to consider the narrow therapeutic window of alcoholics to avoid adverse effects.



Fusel oil, another poisonous component of alcoholic beverages [13]

Fusel alcohols, also sometimes called fusel oils, are higher-order alcohols formed by fermentation and present in cider, mead, beer, wine, and spirits to varying degrees. The most important are 1-propanol, 2-propanol, butanol (various isomers), amyl alcohol, furfural .

Fusel alcohols are formed when fermentation occurs at higher temperatures, at lower pH, and when yeast activity is limited by low nitrogen content.

During distillation, fusel alcohols are concentrated in the "tails" at the end of the distillation run.



Other alcoholic beverage adulterations

Diethylene glycol: is mostly used as an industrial solvent and additive, and is not a normal constituent of alcoholic beverages. Its was used to sweeten Austrian and German wines. This food scandal was discovered in 1986.



[1] Turkis living: Spiked-Drinks-Kill-German-Students. 07.04.2009

http://www.turkishliving.com/forums/turkish-living-times/23565-warning-beware-fake-raki.html



[2] Home distiller: Ethanol Toxicity

http://homedistiller.org/methanol.htm



[3] Rajbhandari , Reema; Acharya, Niranjan; Agrawal, J.P.: Methanol Poisoning: Our Experience with Recent Outbreak . Nepal Journal of Neuroscience, Volume 5, Number 2, 2008

http://www.neuroscienceforum.org.np/bx3.pdf



[4] NAGATO, Leticia Araujo Farah et al. Evaluation of authenticity of alcoholic beverage samples examined by the Instituto Adolfo Lutz (São Paulo, Brazil). Ciênc. Tecnol. Aliment. [online]. 2001, vol.21, n.1, pp. 39-42. ISSN 0101-2061. doi: 10.1590/S0101-20612001000100009.

http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?pid=S0101-20612001000100009&script=sci_abstract



[5] Toxic components in alcoholic drinks, besides ethanol

Jacques Diezi, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University, Lausanne, Switzerland

http://www.sge-ssn.ch/fileadmin/pdf/700-veranstaltungen_ausbildung/20-archiv_sge_veranstaltungen/

10a-alcohol_and_health_an_update/Abstract_Diezi.pdf


[6] Paine A, Davan AD.: Defining a tolerable concentration of methanol in alcoholic drinks. Hum Exp Toxicol. 2001 Nov;20(11):563-8. DOI: 10.1191/096032701718620864

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11926610



[7] Lachenmeier DW, Haupt S, Schulz K.: Defining maximum levels of higher alcohols in alcoholic beverages and surrogate alcohol products. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol. 2008 Apr;50(3):313-21. Epub 2008 Jan 16.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18295386



[8] Sprung R, Bonte W, Lesch OM: Methanol--an up-to-now neglected constituent of all alcoholic beverages. A new biochemical approach to the problem of chronic alcoholism. Wien Klin Wochenschr. 1988 Apr 29;100(9):282-8.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3291400



[9] Afrol News: Methanol, the alcohol that kills. 14.08.2008

http://www.afrol.com/articles/26433



[10] Brahmi,Nozha; Blel, Youssef ; Kouraichi, Nadia; Thabet, Hafedh; Hedhili, Abderrazek; Amamou; Mouldi: Methanol poisoning in Tunisia : Report of 16 cases

http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=19113994



[11] Lieber CS. Alcohol, liver, and nutrition. J Am Coll Nutr. 1991 Dec;10(6):602-32.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/177019



[12] Lieber CS.: Biochemical factors in alcoholic liver disease. Semin Liver Dis. 1993 May;13(2):136-53

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8337602



[13] Hazelwood LA, Daran JM, van Maris AJ, Pronk JT, Dickinson JR (April 2008). "The Ehrlich pathway for fusel alcohol production: a century of research on Saccharomyces cerevisiae metabolism". Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 74 (8): 2259–66. doi:10.1128/AEM.02625-07

http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=18281432




11.04.2009: Research reveal how cells determine the protein production [1]

Silent mutations:Silent mutations are DNA mutations that do not result in a change to the amino acid sequence of a protein. They may occur in a non-coding region (outside of a gene or within an intron), or they may occur within an exon in a manner that does not alter the final amino acid sequence.



Synonymous mutation:The phrase silent mutation is often used interchangeably with the phrase synonymous mutation; however, synonymous mutations are a subcategory of the former, occurring only within exons. [2)





Plotkin et al., 2009, found a hidden code that determines the expression level of a gene, providing a way to distinguish efficient genes from inefficient ones. The research revealed how a cell each protein produces the amount of proteins needed to maintain homeostasis. The researchers concluded from their data that synonymous mutations determine mRNA folding and thereby the eventual protein level.



According to the authors synonymous mutations do not alter the encoded protein, but they can influence gene expression. The researchers created 154 of synthetic green-glowing genes. all encoding the same green fluorescent protein (GFP). The mRNA folding was found to determine the amount of proteins produced by individual genes, whereas codon bias influences global translation efficiency and cellular fitness. They explained that the inefficient genes produced tightly folded mRNA molecules that could not be accessed by the protein-making machinery.



[1] Kudla, Grzegorz; Murray, Andrew W.; Tollervey, David; Plotkin, Joshua B. : Coding-Sequence Determinants of Gene Expression in Escherichia coli. Science 10 April 2009: Vol. 324. no. 5924, pp. 255 – 258 DOI: 10.1126/science.1170160

http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/324/5924/255



[2] Wikipedia: Silent mutation

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silent_mutation





11.04.2009: Chinese slimming capsules contain sibutramine causing serious side effect [1]

The Chinese slimming pills "Meizitanc” declared as a food supplement are on sale over the Internet. They are labelled to contains herbal substances, however, high levels of undeclared sibutramine (10 mg/capsule) were found in these pills. Sibutramine resembles amphetamine which inhibits the reuptake of serotonin and noradrenaline in the brain.



According to Dieter Müller, persons taking these pills were poisoned. They complain about  nausea, tachycardia, headache, agitation, dyspnea, and insomnia. acute confusion and psychosis, mainly in combination with other drugs.

The authors take for granted that the consumption of food supplements containing sibutramine is much greater than has been recorded. The authors urge that manufacturers should be obliged to declare ingredients.



On December 22, 2008, the Food and Drug Administration issued an alert to consumers naming 27 different products marketed as "dietary supplements" for weight loss, that illegally contain undisclosed amounts of sibutramine.  [2][3]



[1] Müller, DieterD; Weinmann, W; Hermanns-Clausen, M.: Chinese Slimming Capsules Containing Sibutramine Over The Internet-A Case Series. Dtsch Arztebl Int 2009; 106(13): 218-22. Doi: 10.3238/arztebl.2009.0218

http://www.aerzteblatt.de/int/article.asp?id=63968



{2} U.S. Food and Drug Administration (22 December 2008). FDA warns consumers about tainted weight loss pills. Press release.

http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/NEWS/2008/NEW01933.html



{3} U.S. Food and Drug Administration : Consumer directed questions and answers about FDA’s initiative against contaminated weight loss products U.S. Food and Drug Administration Center for Drug Evaluation and Research. 22 December 2008.

http://www.fda.gov/cder/consumerinfo/weight_loss_products.htm.